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The 2.5 in the Viscosity of a Suspension Comes Not from the Volume of the Particles but from the Stress They Place on the Flow Outside ── for the Stokes solution of a sphere in a uniform straining flow, the surface integral of the stress over the sphere (the stresslet) is 20π/3 times viscosity, radius cubed and strain, and dividing by the particle volume 4π/3 gives 2.5; solving viscosity and diffusion for two unknowns, a change of the coefficient from 1 to 2.5 moves Avogadro's number by a factor 1.581139 ── the separator is whether one counts the volume inside the particle or the stress outside it ── [Paper 1024]

Sep 2026 · Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research)
Fluid dynamics and aerodynamics studies

Abstract

A liquid with small spheres mixed in at volume fraction φ has, when dilute, (1 + 2.5φ) times its original viscosity. Einstein wrote the coefficient as 1 in his 1906 doctoral thesis and corrected it to 2.5 in 1911. This paper checks the Stokes solution for a sphere in a uniform straining flow by symbolic computation, obtains 2.5 from the surface integral of the stress over the sphere, and counts how that coefficient enters the Avogadro number determined from viscosity and diffusion. No new theorem or law is claimed. Scope of this paper (scope note): No new theorem or law is claimed──the viscosity formula (1 + 2.5φ) for a dilute suspension (Einstein 1906, corrected 1911), the Stokes solution for a sphere in a uniform straining flow, the definition of the effective stress through the stresslet (Batchelor 1967), and the Stokes-Einstein diffusion coefficient are all known. Only the dilute limit is seen──hydrodynamic interactions between particles (the φ² term), Brownian motion, non-Newtonian behaviour, deformable or non-spherical particles are not included. The history of the correction is not entered──why the coefficient 1 of 1906 was corrected to 2.5 in 1911 is not entered; it is cited as a fact. Real suspensions are not compared──no agreement with measured viscosities is claimed; all numbers are computed from the definition of the solution. The dissipation route is not used──the 2.5 is obtained from the surface integral of the stress, the definition of the effective stress itself, and not from the increase in dissipation. Relation to earlier papers: Paper 673 showed that a colloid is the name of a window in size rather than of a substance, taking the Einstein-Stokes diffusion coefficient as known──here the other formula of the same thesis, the coefficient on the viscosity side, is counted. Paper 544 showed that thirteen routes returned one Avogadro number and that the number is now a definition──here it is counted, for one of those routes (viscosity and diffusion), by what factor an error in the coefficient moves the number. Paper 827 showed that the softening point of glass is a convention fixing one viscosity──here it is counted that the coefficient of the viscosity increase is not a convention but a number fixed by the solution. What is added is checking the Stokes solution symbolically, integrating the stresslet numerically and matching 20π/3, and obtaining by simultaneous solution that the coefficient enters Avogadro’s number as a square root. First, and this is the core. The 2.5 comes not from the volume of the particle but from the stress it places on the flow outside──integrating the stress over the sphere numerically on a 400×800 grid, with viscosity, radius cubed and strain set to 1, the diagonal component is 20.943978, agreeing with the closed form 20π/3 = 20.943951 at a ratio of 1.000001. The coefficient of the increase in effective viscosity is this divided by the particle volume 4π/3, (10π/3)/(4π/3) = 2.500000 (Section 3). Second, the solution used satisfies the equations and the boundary condition──symbolically, the divergence is 0, the residual of the Stokes equation is 0 in all three components, and the velocity vanishes at the surface point (3/5, 4/5, 0)a (Section 2). Third, the influence of the particle reaches outward as 1/r²──multiplying the disturbance from the uniform strain by the square of the distance and taking the far limit on the x axis, the first component tends to −5a³/2. What acts on the viscosity is this stress that reaches outside (Section 2). Fourth, the coefficient enters Avogadro’s number as a square root──the viscosity increase fixes the product of Avogadro’s number and the cube of the molecular radius, the diffusion coefficient fixes the product with the first power, so solving the two together, changing the coefficient k from 1 to 2.5 moves Avogadro’s number by √2.5 = 1.581139 and the radius by 1/√2.5 (Section 4). Fifth, in the dilute range the increase is proportional to the fraction──at φ = 0.01, 0.02 and 0.05 the viscosity ratios are 1.025000, 1.050000 and 1.125000 (Section 4). Sixth, the separator is whether one counts the volume inside the particle or the stress outside it──the volume fraction alone would stop the coefficient at 1. The part of 2.5 beyond the volume is the stress the sphere places by bending the flow outside (Section 5). The 2.5 in the viscosity of a suspension comes not from the volume of the particles but from the stress they place on the flow outside. Checking the Stokes solution for a sphere in a uniform straining flow symbolically and integrating the stress over the sphere numerically gives 20.943978, agreeing with the closed form 20π/3 = 20.943951 at a ratio of 1.000001. Divided by the particle volume 4π/3 the coefficient is 2.500000, and solving two measurements for two unknowns, a factor 2.5 in the coefficient appears as a factor 1.581139 in Avogadro’s number──the volume fraction alone would stop at 1; the excess is the stress that remains outside as 1/r². The separator is whether one counts the volume inside the particle or the stress outside it. Placed among the earlier papers──Paper 673 counted the window in size taking the diffusion side as known, Paper 544 showed that the agreement of thirteen routes turned into a definition, and Paper 827 showed the convention in a viscosity value. Here the coefficient of the other formula of the thesis was counted from the stress of the solution. To be honest──only one sphere in the dilute limit has been counted. On the making of this work: The ideas and content of this work stem from the author's own considerations. Assistance from an AI (a large language model) was used for structuring, English translation, and checking the algebra. Any remaining errors or misinterpretations are solely the author's. Feedback and corrections are sincerely appreciated. Keywords: Einstein viscosity formula, Stokes flow, stresslet, suspension, Avogadro number, effective viscosity. ----- 小さな球を体積の割合 φ だけ混ぜた液の粘度は、希薄なら元の粘度の (1+2.5φ) 倍になる。アインシュタインは 1906 年の学位論文でこの係数を 1 と書き、1911 年の訂正で 2.5 に直した。本稿は、一様なひずみ流の中の球のストークス解を記号計算で検算し、球面での応力の面積分から 2.5 を出し、その係数が粘度と拡散から決めるアボガドロ数にどう効くかを数える。新しい定理も法則も主張しない。 本稿の射程(射程注記):新しい定理も法則も主張しない──希薄な懸濁液の粘度の式 (1+2.5φ)(アインシュタイン 1906、訂正 1911)、一様なひずみ流の中の球のストークス解、ストレスレットによる有効応力の定義(バチェラー 1967)、ストークス=アインシュタインの拡散係数は、いずれも既知である。希薄極限だけを見る──粒子どうしの流体力学的相互作用(φ² の項)、ブラウン運動、非ニュートン性、変形する粒子や球でない粒子は入れない。訂正の経緯に入らない──1906 年の係数 1 が 1911 年に 2.5 に直された理由には入らず、事実として引くだけである。実在の懸濁液と比べない──測定された粘度との一致は主張しない。数はすべて解の定義から計算した。散逸の道を使わない──2.5 は応力の面積分(有効応力の定義そのもの)から出し、散逸の増分から出す道は本稿では使わない。既刊との関係:論文673 は、コロイドが物質の名前ではなく大きさの窓の名前であることを、アインシュタイン=ストークスの拡散係数を既知として示した──ここでは、同じ学位論文のもう一つの式、粘度の側の係数を数える。論文544 は、十三通りが同じアボガドロ数を返していたのに、いまその数が定義になっていることを示した──ここでは、その一通り(粘度と拡散)で係数の誤りがアボガドロ数を何倍動かすかを数える。論文827 は、ガラスの軟化点が粘度を一つ決めた規約であることを示した──ここでは、粘度の増分の係数が規約ではなく解から決まる数であることを数える。加えたのは、ストークス解を記号計算で検算したこと、ストレスレットを数値積分して 20π/3 と一致させたこと、係数がアボガドロ数に平方根で効くことを連立で出したことである。 第一に、これが本稿の芯である。2.5 は粒子の体積ではなく、粒子が外の流れに置く応力から出る──球面での応力の面積分(ストレスレット)を 400×800 の格子で数値積分すると、粘度と半径の三乗とひずみを 1 と置いて対角成分は 20.943978 で、閉じた式の 20π/3=20.943951 と比 1.000001 で一致した。有効粘度の増分の係数はこれを粒子の体積 4π/3 で割った (10π/3)/(4π/3)=2.500000 である(第3節)。 第二に、使った解は方程式と境界条件を満たす──記号計算で、連続の式は 0、ストークスの運動方程式の残差は三成分とも 0、球面上の点 (3/5, 4/5, 0)a で速度は 0 だった(第2節)。 第三に、粒子の影響は 1/r² で外へ届く──一様なひずみからの乱れに距離の二乗を掛けて遠方の極限を取ると、x 軸上の第一成分で −5a³/2 に収束する。粘度に効くのは、この外に届く応力である(第2節)。 第四に、係数はアボガドロ数に平方根で効く──粘度の増分はアボガドロ数と分子の半径の三乗の積を、拡散係数はその一乗の積を決めるので、二つを連立すると係数 k を 1 から 2.5 に替えたときアボガドロ数は √2.5=1.581139 倍、半径は 1/√2.5 倍に動く(第4節)。 第五に、希薄な範囲では増分は割合に比例する──φ=0.01・0.02・0.05 で粘度の比は 1.025000・1.050000・1.125000 である(第4節)。 第六に、分離子は、粒子の中の体積で数えるか、粒子の外の応力で数えるか──体積の割合だけなら係数は 1 で止まる。2.5 のうち体積を超える分は、球が外の流れを曲げて置く応力の分である(第5節)。 球を混ぜた液の粘度の 2.5 は、粒子の体積ではなく粒子が外の流れに置く応力から出る。一様なひずみ流の中の球のストークス解を記号計算で検算し、球面での応力の面積分を数値で出すと 20.943978 で、閉じた式の 20π/3=20.943951 と比 1.000001 で一致した。粒子の体積 4π/3 で割った係数は 2.500000 で、二つの測定を二つの未知数に当てると係数の 2.5 倍はアボガドロ数の 1.581139 倍として現れる──体積の割合だけなら 1 で止まり、超える分は外に 1/r² で残る応力である。分離子は、粒子の中の体積で数えるか、粒子の外の応力で数えるかである。既刊との位置──論文673 は拡散の側を既知として大きさの窓を数え、論文544 は十三通りの一致が定義に変わったことを、論文827 は粘度の値の規約を示した。ここでは、学位論文のもう一つの式の係数を、解の応力から数えた。正直に言えば──希薄極限の一つの球しか数えていない。 作成にあたって:本稿の着想と内容は、著者自身の考察に基づくものです。文章の構成整理や英訳、数式の確認には AI(大規模言語モデル)の助力を得ました。最終的な内容の解釈や誤りがあれば、それらはすべて著者の責に帰します。お気づきの点があれば、ご教示いただければ幸いです。 キーワード:アインシュタインの粘度の式、ストークス流、ストレスレット、懸濁液、アボガドロ数、有効粘度。

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