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The Time Difference for Light Going Once Round a Rotating Loop Is Set by the Enclosed Area Alone, Not by the Perimeter ── A square, an equilateral triangle, a rectangle with 2.125 times the perimeter and a regular 64-gon of the same area all give 4AΩ/c², and a figure of eight gives zero because its signed area is zero ── the separator is first order or second ── [Paper 1037]

Sep 2026 · Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research)
Geophysics and Sensor Technology

Abstract

Send light both ways round a rotating loop and the two beams return at different times. This paper solves, edge by edge, the motion of mirrors that move while the light is on its way, and counts what fixes that difference. No new theorem and no new law is claimed. Scope of this paper (scope note): No new theorem and no new law is claimed──the Sagnac effect, the proportionality of the time difference to the enclosed area, the failure of synchronisation to close in a rotating frame, and the use of this effect in fibre-optic gyroscopes are all standard (Sagnac 1913, Post 1967, Ashby 2003). The Ehrenfest paradox is not resolved──whether a disk can be spun up as a rigid body is not entered; the rotating loop is simply watched from the static frame. No formula for the second-order coefficient is derived──the second-order quantity is measured and the fact that its coefficient differs in sign between figures is recorded; why it takes that sign is not claimed. Gravity is not included──only the rotating coordinates of flat spacetime are used, and the gravitational rate shift of clocks (the side of Paper 66) is left out. No instrument performance is claimed──the fibre example is there to display the accounting of area; noise, resolution and thermal effects are not treated. The values are examples──the angular velocity 10 to the minus 6 with c=1, the figures of unit area and the representative values for the Earth are for comparison. Relation to earlier papers:The scope note of Paper 1027 stated that whether a disk can be spun up rigidly, and how simultaneity around the circumference is to be fixed, are not its subjects──this paper takes the seat left by the second of these and counts that going once round leaves synchronisation short by 2AΩ/c²(no earlier occupant). Paper 24 showed that the one-way speed of light cannot be measured and that the round trip is c under any synchronisation convention──what is measured here is the difference in arrival times of two beams at the same point, a quantity that needs no one-way speed. Paper 33 showed that the Wigner angle is an area, Paper 903 that the angle a Foucault pendulum turns in a day is a solid angle, and Paper 906 that carrying a polarisation round a closed path shifts its phase by half the enclosed solid angle──the time difference here has the same shape, what is left after a circuit is what was enclosed, but here the enclosure is a plane area and not a solid angle, so no common root is claimed. Paper 402 showed that the fourth satellite is for the clock and not for the position──the 207.386107 ns obtained here for the equator is the same quantity that appears when such clocks are set across the globe. What is added is tabulating the ratio while shape, perimeter and centre are varied, showing with a figure of eight that it is the signed area that acts, counting that tilting leaves the projected area, and measuring that the second-order coefficient differs in sign between figures. First, and this is the core. Only the enclosed area matters; the perimeter does not──for a square, an equilateral triangle, a long thin rectangle with 2.125 times the perimeter and a regular 64-gon, all of area 1, the time difference divided by 4AΩ is 0.9999999999998333, 1.00000000000077, 0.9999999999986615 and 1.000000000000317. The perimeter spans a factor 2.39684243451, from 3.54633240701 to 8.5, and the difference does not move (Section 3). Second, the centre of rotation may be anywhere──the same square displaced to (3,2) still gives 1.000000000025833, and quadrupling the area exactly quadruples the difference (Section 3). Third, what acts is the signed area──for a figure of eight made of two loops of opposite sense, the absolute areas sum to 4 while the signed area is 0, and the time difference is exactly 0. Tilting the loop leaves the area of its projection onto the plane perpendicular to the rotation axis, and a loop stood on edge gives no difference at all (Section 4 and Section 5). Fourth, half of the difference is the failure of clock synchronisation to close around the loop──it is 2AΩ/c², and synchronising clocks all the way round the equator of the Earth leaves a mismatch of 207.386107 ns at the starting point. The east-west difference for light is twice that, 414.772213 ns, and at latitude 35.68 degrees the projected area is 0.659810449 times smaller, giving 136.835520 ns (Section 6 and Section 7). Fifth, the separator is first order or second──"area alone" is a statement at first order in Ω. Raising Ω a hundredfold to expose the second-order term, the departure is negative, -1.66682×10⁻⁵, for the square centred on the axis and positive, 0.00258821, for the displaced one: even the sign differs. Both fall by a factor 100 when Ω is divided by 10 (ratios 100.0094043 and 100.1870602), confirming that the departure is second order (Section 8). Sixth, that area is what counts means that winding helps──winding 1000 m of optical fibre into loops 0.10 m across gives 3183.098862 turns and a total area of exactly 25 m², one quarter of length times diameter. The rotation of the Earth alone then gives a time difference of 8.113572 times 10 to the minus 20 seconds and, at a wavelength of 1.55 μm, a phase difference of 9.860092 times 10 to the minus 5 radians (Section 7). The time difference for light going once round a rotating loop is set by the enclosed area alone, not by the perimeter. For a square, an equilateral triangle, a rectangle with 2.125 times the perimeter and a regular 64-gon, all of area 1, the difference divided by 4AΩ is 0.9999999999998333, 1.00000000000077, 0.9999999999986615 and 1.000000000000317, and displacing the centre of rotation to (3,2) still leaves 1.000000000025833. What acts is the signed area: a figure of eight cancels to zero, and tilting the loop leaves the area of its projection on the plane perpendicular to the rotation axis──half the difference, 2AΩ/c², is what remains when clocks are set in turn around the rotating loop, and for the equator of the Earth that is 207.386107 ns. The separator is first order or second──at second order the sign of the departure differs between figures and the distance from the centre returns. Placed among the earlier papers──the scope note of Paper 1027 set aside simultaneity around the circumference. This paper takes that seat and writes in numbers why it was set aside: a circuit does not close. Paper 33, Paper 903 and Paper 906 have the same shape, what is left after a circuit is what was enclosed, but all three enclose a solid angle while this one encloses a plane area. To be honest──the formula dates from 1913; what is added here is a measurement of what does not act, across shape, perimeter, centre, sense and tilt. On the making of this work: The ideas and content of this work stem from the author's own considerations. Assistance from an AI (a large language model) was used for structuring, English translation, and checking the algebra. Any remaining errors or misinterpretations are solely the author's. Feedback and corrections are sincerely appreciated. Keywords: Sagnac effect, rotating frame, simultaneity, optical interference, enclosed area, fibre-optic gyroscope. ----- 回っている輪に光を順回りと逆回りで走らせると、戻る時刻がずれる。本稿は、鏡が光の到着を待つあいだに動くことを一辺ずつ解いて、そのずれが何で決まるかを数える。新しい定理も法則も主張しない。 本稿の射程(射程注記):新しい定理も法則も主張しない──サニャック効果、時間差が囲んだ面積に比例すること、回転系で同期が一周して閉じないこと、光ファイバージャイロがこの効果で回転を測ることは、いずれも既知である(サニャック 1913、ポスト 1967、アシュビー 2003)。エーレンフェストのパラドックスを解かない──円板を剛体として回し始められるかには入らない。回っている輪を静止系から見るだけである。二次の係数の公式は導かない──二次で効く量を測り、その係数が図形によって符号まで違うことを記録するにとどめる。なぜその符号になるかは主張しない。重力を入れない──平らな時空の回転座標だけを使い、地球の重力ポテンシャルによる時計の進み(論文66 の側)は入れない。実機の性能を主張しない──光ファイバーの例は面積の勘定を見せるためで、雑音・分解能・温度の効きは扱わない。値は例である──c=1 と置いた角速度 10 の −6 乗、面積 1 の図形、地球の代表値は比べるための値である。既刊との関係:論文1027 の射程注記は、円板を剛体として回し始められるかと、円周上の同時性をどう決めるかは主題ではないと書いた──本稿はそのうち円周上の同時性の席に座り、一周すると同期が 2AΩ/c² だけ閉じないことを数える(先客なし)。論文24 は、片道の光速が測れず、往復はどの同期の規約でも c であることを示した──ここで測るのは同じ点に戻る二つの光の到着時刻の差であり、片道の速さを決めなくても測れる量である。論文33 はウィグナー角が面積であることを、論文903 はフーコーの振り子が一日に回る角が立体角であることを、論文906 は偏光の位相の動きが囲んだ立体角の半分であることを示した──本稿の時間差も「一周して残るのは囲んだ量」という形をしているが、ここで囲むのは平らな面の面積であり、三つの立体角とは根が違うので同根とは書かない。論文402 は、四つ目の衛星が位置のためではなく時計のためであることを示した──ここで出す赤道の 207.386107 ns は、その時計を地球規模で合わせるときに出てくる同じ量である。加えたのは、形・周の長さ・回転の中心を替えて比を一つの表に並べたこと、8 の字で符号つき面積が効くことを示したこと、傾きで射影の面積になることを数えたこと、二次の係数が図形によって符号まで違うことを測ったことである。 第一に、これが本稿の芯である。効くのは囲んだ面積だけで、周の長さは効かない──面積 1 の正方形・正三角形・周が 2.125 倍の細長い長方形・正 64 角形の四つで、時間差を 4AΩ で割った比は 0.9999999999998333・1.00000000000077・0.9999999999986615・1.000000000000317 であった。周は 3.54633240701 から 8.5 まで 2.39684243451 倍ひらくのに、差は同じである(第3節)。 第二に、回転の中心がどこにあっても変わらない──同じ正方形を中心から (3,2) だけずらして回しても、比は 1.000000000025833 である。面積を 4 倍にすれば差はちょうど 4 倍になった(第3節)。 第三に、効いているのは符号つきの面積である──二つのループを逆向きにつないだ 8 の字では、囲んだ面積の絶対値の和が 4 あるのに符号つき面積は 0 で、時間差も厳密に 0 になった。輪を傾ければ効くのは回転軸に垂直な面への射影の面積で、真横に立てた輪では差が消える(第4節・第5節)。 第四に、差の半分は、回る輪の上で時計を順に合わせて一周したときに残るずれである──2AΩ/c² であり、地球の赤道をぐるりと一周して時計を合わせると出発点で 207.386107 ns 食い違う。東回りと西回りの光の差はその倍の 414.772213 ns で、緯度 35.68 度の輪では射影の面積が 0.659810449 倍になるので 136.835520 ns になる(第6節・第7節)。 第五に、分離子は、一次か二次かである──「面積だけ」は Ω の一次の言明である。Ω を 100 倍にして二次の項を見ると、中心を通る正方形ではずれが負の -1.66682×10⁻⁵、中心をずらした正方形では正の 0.00258821 で、符号まで違った。どちらも Ω を 10 分の 1 にするとずれは 100 分の 1 になり(比 100.0094043 と 100.1870602)、二次であることが確かめられる(第8節)。 第六に、面積で決まることは、巻けば効くということである──全長 1000 m の光ファイバーを直径 0.10 m の輪に巻くと巻き数は 3183.098862、総面積は全長と直径の積の 4 分の 1 でちょうど 25 m² になる。地球の自転での時間差は 8.113572×10 の −20 乗 秒、波長 1.55 μm での位相差は 9.860092×10 の −5 乗 ラジアンである(第7節)。 回る輪を光が一周する時間の差は、周の長さによらず、囲んだ面積だけで決まる。面積 1 の正方形・正三角形・周が 2.125 倍の長方形・正 64 角形で、時間差を 4AΩ で割った比は 0.9999999999998333・1.00000000000077・0.9999999999986615・1.000000000000317 で一致し、回転の中心を (3,2) ずらしても 1.000000000025833 のままだった。効くのは符号つきの面積で、8 の字では打ち消して 0 になり、輪を傾ければ回転軸に垂直な面への射影の面積になる──差の半分 2AΩ/c² は、回る輪の上で時計を順に合わせて一周したときに残るずれで、地球の赤道では 207.386107 ns である。分離子は、一次か二次かである──二次ではずれの符号が図形によって違い、中心からの距離が戻ってくる。既刊の中に置けば──論文1027 の射程注記は円周上の同時性を主題から外した。本稿はその席に座り、なぜ外れていたのか──一周すると同期が閉じないから──を数で書いた。論文33・903・906 も「一周して残るのは囲んだ量」という形をしているが、あちらは三つとも立体角で、ここで囲むのは平らな面の面積である。正直に書けば──式は 1913 年からあり、本稿

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