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The Extrapolation Crosses Zero Because the Heat-Capacity Difference Was Held Constant ── With a melting entropy of 10 and a heat-capacity difference of 30, the extrapolated entropy difference crosses zero at T=214.959393, or 0.716531 of the melting point ── let it vanish as the third law requires and it need not cross at all ── [Paper 503]

Sep 2026 · Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research)

Abstract

The Kauzmann paradox is spoken of as a property of supercooled liquids. This paper shows that crossing zero follows from holding the heat-capacity difference constant──held constant, however small, it always crosses. No new theorem or law is claimed. Scope of this paper (scope note): No new theorem or law is claimed──the Kauzmann paradox and the candidate resolutions are standard. No theory of glasses──whether an ideal glass transition exists, or dynamic arrest suffices, is not the subject. No real substance──a melting point of 300, melting entropy of 10 and heat-capacity difference of 30 are model values, not measurements of any material. The temperature dependence was not measured──only two cases are compared: held constant, and vanishing in proportion to T. The real dependence differs by substance. The third law is not proved──that heat capacities vanish as T->0 is used as a premise, not derived. Relation to earlier papers: Paper 352 showed that the glass transition temperature moves with the speed of measurement──that is the kinetic side; this is the thermodynamic one. Paper 498 showed continuity in composition and discontinuity in identity──both are cases where entropy shows a different face depending on which variable is moved. Paper 481 showed that a refutation can be blamed on any assumption──“the entropy goes negative” can be blamed on the extrapolation. Paper 300 showed that a shared root can be decided──holding constant and letting vanish are distinct roots. What is added is solving T_K=214.959393 by bisection, confirming the closed form to twelve digits, showing that lowering the difference to 30, 5 and 1 still crosses, showing that with a vanishing difference the total decides, and placing the separator in the extrapolation. First, the entropy difference is +4.530353 at T=250 and -2.163953 at T=200 (Section 2). Second, it crosses zero at 214.959393, or 0.716531 of the melting point (Section 2). Third, that matches the closed form exp(-Delta S_m/Delta C_p) at 0.716531310574 (Section 2). Fourth, this is the core of the paper. Lowering the difference to 1 still crosses, at T_K=1.36x10^-2──only the crossing temperature falls (Section 3). Fifth, let the difference vanish with temperature and it crosses only when the total exceeds Delta S_m (Section 3). Sixth, the separator is whether the heat-capacity difference was held constant or made to vanish (Section 4). The Kauzmann paradox is spoken of as a property of supercooled liquids──cool far enough and the liquid’s entropy falls below the crystal’s. But the crossing lies outside the measured range: measurement stops at the glass transition, and beyond it is extrapolation, which needs assumptions. The extrapolation crosses zero──with T_m=300, Delta S_m=10 and Delta C_p=30, Delta S runs +10.000000, +4.530353, -0.134194 and -10.794415 at T=300, 250, 214 and 150, changing sign between 214 and 250. Bisection gives T_K=214.959393, or 0.716531 of the melting point, and recomputing there returns 0.000000000000. The ratio matches the closed form exp(-Delta S_m/Delta C_p)=0.716531310574 to twelve digits. Reported values of T_K/T_m for glass formers are about 0.7, and the model’s 0.7165 lies in that range. Below T_K it is -3.160815, colliding with the third law; above it, +2.859305. It crosses because the difference was held constant──lowering Delta C_p to 30, 5 and 1 gives T_K=2.149594x10^2, 4.060058x10^1 and 1.361998x10^-2. A smaller difference still crosses; only the crossing temperature falls. The reason is that Delta C_pln(T_m/T) grows without bound as T->0, so any finite Delta S_m is eventually exceeded. So “it must cross” follows from holding the difference constant, not from the substance: the assumption contains the conclusion. Letting Delta C_p(T)=Delta C_p,0(T/T_m) as the third law requires, the total lost saturates at Delta C_p,0, so 30 crosses while 5 does not. And since the third law requires heat capacities to vanish as T->0, the extrapolation’s assumption is incompatible with the third law itself. One thing separates them──was the heat-capacity difference held constant, or made to vanish. Held constant, the logarithm diverges and it must cross: the paradox is built into the extrapolation. Made to vanish, the total decides──30 crosses, 5 does not──and the answer may differ by substance. The two are distinct roots by the criterion of Paper 300: both may be called “the Kauzmann temperature”, but one is a number the assumption always produces and one a number the substance decides. Paper 352 did the same on the kinetic side: there “written like a material constant but not constant”, here “written like a property of matter but a consequence of an assumption”. It neighbours Paper 498, where entropy showed a different face depending on which variable was moved──there composition against identity, here temperature against the assumption. This is one of the separators of Paper 481: when “the entropy goes negative” arrives as a refutation, whether the third law failed or the extrapolation was poor sends the repair elsewhere. To be honest──the real temperature dependence was not measured. Only constant and linearly vanishing were compared, while the real dependence differs by substance; knowing its form would settle whether T_K exists, and this paper does not have that form. On the making of this work: The ideas and content of this work stem from the author's own considerations. Assistance from an AI (a large language model) was used for structuring, English translation, and checking the algebra. Any remaining errors or misinterpretations are solely the author's. Feedback and corrections are sincerely appreciated. Keywords: Kauzmann paradox, glass transition, supercooled liquid, entropy, heat capacity. ----- カウツマンのパラドクスは、過冷却液体の性質だと言われる。本稿が示すのは、ゼロを切ることが比熱差を定数と置いた帰結であることである──定数である限り、どんなに小さくても必ず切る。新しい定理も法則も主張しない。 本稿の射程(射程注記):新しい定理も法則も主張しない──カウツマンのパラドクスも、その解決の候補も標準的である。ガラスの理論を書かない──理想ガラス転移が実在するか、動的な凍結だけで説明できるかは主題ではない。実在の物質を扱わない──融点 300、融解エントロピー 10、比熱差 30 は模型の値であり、特定の物質の測定値ではない。比熱差の温度依存を測っていない──定数と置く場合と、T に比例して消える場合の二つだけを比べた。実際の依存は物質ごとに違う。第三法則を証明しない──T->0 で比熱が消えることは前提として使い、導かない。既刊との関係:論文352 はガラス転移温度が測る速さで動くと示した──あちらは動力学の側、本稿は熱力学の側である。論文498 は組成については連続なのに、同種かどうかでは飛ぶと示した──どちらもエントロピーが、どの変数を動かすかで別の顔を見せる場合である。論文481 は反証がどの仮定へも落ちうると示した──「エントロピーが負になる」という反証も、外挿の仮定へ落とせる。論文300 は同根か別根かが判定できると示した──定数と置く場合と消える場合は別根である。加えたのは、T_K=214.959393 を二分法で解いたこと、閉じた式に 12 桁一致することを確かめたこと、比熱差を 30、5、1 と下げても必ず切ることを示したこと、消える場合には総量が判定を決めることを示したこと、分離子を外挿の仮定に置いたことである。 第一に、エントロピー差は T=250 で +4.530353、T=200 で -2.163953 になる(第2節)。 第二に、ゼロを切る温度は 214.959393、融点の 0.716531 倍である(第2節)。 第三に、それは閉じた式 exp(-Delta S_m/Delta C_p) に 0.716531310574 で一致する(第2節)。 第四に、これが本稿の芯である。比熱差を 1 まで下げても、T_K=1.36x10^-2 で必ず切る──切る温度が下がるだけである(第3節)。 第五に、比熱差が温度とともに消えるなら、総量が Delta S_m を超えるときだけ切る(第3節)。 第六に、分離子は「比熱差を定数と置いたか、第三法則に合わせて消したか」である(第4節)。 カウツマンのパラドクスは、過冷却液体の性質だと言われる──冷やしていくと液体のエントロピーが結晶を下回る、物質がそういう振舞いをするという像である。だが下回るのは測った領域の外で、実測はガラス転移で止まる。その先は外挿であり、外挿には仮定が要る。外挿はゼロを切る──T_m=300、Delta S_m=10、Delta C_p=30 で、Delta S は T=300 で +10.000000、250 で +4.530353、214 で -0.134194、150 で -10.794415 となり、214 と 250 の間で符号が変わる。二分法で解くと T_K=214.959393、融点の 0.716531 倍で、そこで計算し直すと 0.000000000000 に戻る。その比は閉じた式 exp(-Delta S_m/Delta C_p)=0.716531310574 に 12 桁一致する。多くのガラス形成物質で報告される T_K/T_m は 0.7 前後で、模型の 0.7165 はその範囲にある。 T_K より下では -3.160815 と負になって第三法則と衝突し、上では +2.859305 と正である。切るのは、定数と置いたからである──Delta C_p を 30、5、1 と下げると T_K は 2.149594x10^2、4.060058x10^1、1.361998x10^-2 となる。比熱差を小さくしても切ることは切り、切る温度が下がるだけである。理由は Delta C_pln(T_m/T) の ln が T->0 で発散することで、どんな有限の Delta S_m もいつかは超えられる。つまり「必ず切る」のは定数と置いたことの帰結であって物質の性質ではなく、仮定が結論を含んでいる。第三法則に合わせて Delta C_p(T)=Delta C_p,0(T/T_m) と置けば、失う総量は Delta C_p,0 で頭打ちになり、30 なら切るが 5 なら切らない。そして第三法則は比熱が T->0 で消えることを要求するので、定数のままにはできない──外挿の仮定は、第三法則そのものと両立しない。分けているものは一つ──比熱差を定数と置いたか、第三法則に合わせて消したか。定数と置くなら ln が発散して必ず切り、パラドクスは外挿の中に作り込まれている。消すなら切るかどうかは総量で決まり、30 なら切り 5 なら切らず、物質ごとに答が違ってよい。二つは論文300 の基準で別根であり、どちらも「カウツマン温度」と呼べるが、一方は仮定から必ず出る数、一方は物質が決める数である。論文352 は動力学の側で同じことをした。あちらは「物質定数のように書かれるが定数でない」、こちらは「物質の性質のように書かれるが仮定の帰結である」。論文498 とも隣り合い、エントロピーがどの変数を動かすかで別の顔を見せる──あちらは組成か識別可能性か、こちらは温度か外挿の仮定かである。これは論文481 でいう分離子の一本で、「エントロピーが負になる」という反証が来たとき、第三法則が破れたのか外挿の仮定が悪かったのかで直す先が違う。正直に言えば──比熱差の実際の温度依存を測っていない。定数と、T に比例して消える場合の二つを比べただけで、実際の依存は物質ごとに違う。その形が分かれば T_K が実在するかどうかも決まるが、本稿はその形を持っていない。 作成にあたって:本稿の着想と内容は、著者自身の考察に基づくものです。文章の構成整理や英訳、数式の確認には AI(大規模言語モデル)の助力を得ました。最終的な内容の解釈や誤りがあれば、それらはすべて著者の責に帰します。お気づきの点があれば、ご教示いただければ幸いです。 キーワード:カウツマンのパラドクス、ガラス転移、過冷却液体、エントロピー、比熱。

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