Long-read proteogenomic atlas of human neuronal differentiation reveals isoform diversity informing neurodevelopmental risk mechanisms

Abstract

RNA splicing shapes neuronal identity and disease risk, yet current maps lack the developmental resolution and depth to resolve this complexity. Here, we integrate deep long-read RNA sequencing and proteomics in induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cortical neurons to generate a high-resolution proteogenomic atlas of human neuron development. We identify 182,371 mRNA isoforms (over half previously unknown) and provide direct peptide evidence for the translation of hundreds of novel protein-coding sequences. Population genetics demonstrates that variants affecting novel exons and splice sites are under negative selection, underscoring the potential significance of these isoforms. During neuronal maturation, we observe that autism risk genes undergo dynamic isoform switching, including microexon inclusion and intron retention, that remodel key protein domains and regulatory regions. Furthermore, we uncover widespread, long-range coordination between alternative transcript processing events, including transcription start sites, exon splicing, and polyadenylation. Finally, our atlas enables variant reinterpretation in autism, highlighting the value of an isoform-centric view for interpreting pathogenic variation in neurodevelopment. Alternative splicing expands neuronal diversity, but many brain RNA isoforms remain uncharacterized. Here, the authors generate a high‑resolution proteogenomic atlas of human neuron development, uncovering thousands of novel isoforms and revealing dynamic splicing changes in autism risk genes.