Skip to content
#small language model Open access

Same Atomic Number, Same Charge, Same Electrons: Change Only the Mass and the Rate Moves Sevenfold ── The C--H to C--D frequency ratio is 0.734230, which is not 1/sqrt(2)=0.707107 ── A zero-point difference of 4.7690 kJ/mol makes k_H/k_D=6.8468 at room temperature ── [Paper 341]

Sep 2026 · Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research)
Cold Fusion and Nuclear Reactions

Abstract

Replace hydrogen with deuterium and a reaction rate changes. This paper asks why changing only the mass moves the rate──the answer is that the energy of standing still is set by the mass. No new mathematical theorem and no new law is claimed. Scope of this paper (scope note): No new mathematical theorem and no new law is claimed──the zero-point energy of a harmonic oscillator, the reduced mass, and the primary kinetic isotope effect are all standard. We do not settle any mechanism──rate-determining steps and transition-state structures of particular reactions are not entered. Only a semiclassical upper bound is looked at. We do not treat tunnelling──the anomalously large k_H/k_D observed at low temperature comes from tunnelling; this paper stays where zero-point energy suffices. It is mentioned and no more. We do not treat secondary isotope effects──substitution away from the breaking bond is not entered. We do not treat equilibrium isotope effects──shifts in equilibrium constants rather than rates are not the subject. We do not treat anharmonicity──real vibrations are not harmonic and 3000 cm^-1 is a representative value. Relation to earlier papers: Paper 314 showed there is only one kind of constant one can ask “has it changed?” about──there only dimensionless constants could be asked. This paper runs the other way: within one element, only the mass is moved. Not moving a constant but exchanging a specimen. Paper 283 showed the same “double the Q” differing by 10^17 across three mechanisms──that was in the nucleus and this is in a chemical bond. Both are “a small difference in mass or energy reaches the rate through an exponential”. Paper 300 showed whether two things share a root is decidable──here the isotope effect and the temperature effect live inside the same exponential. Paper 272 showed the same “twice as strong” opening by 6.70 on the stimulus side──there too a small input difference became a large output difference. What is added is computing the frequency ratio from reduced masses and showing in numbers why it is not 1/sqrt(2), giving k_H/k_D at three temperatures from the zero-point difference, repeating the calculation for O--H and for carbon 12/13 to confirm the size is set by the mass ratio, and putting the separator on whether the light atom sits on the breaking bond. First, the C--D stretch is 2202.69 cm^-1, a factor 0.734230 of C--H (Section 2). Second, that ratio is not 1/sqrt(2)=0.707107. Because the reduced mass carries the 12 of carbon (Section 2). Third, this is the core of the paper. What makes the difference is not the passage of the reaction but the state of rest before it (Section 3). Fourth, a zero-point difference of 4.7690 kJ/mol makes k_H/k_D=6.8468 at room temperature (Section 3). Fifth, it moves strongly with temperature.8.1650 at 0 °C and 4.6512 at 100 °C (Section 4). Sixth, the separator is whether the light atom sits on the bond that breaks (Section 5). Replace hydrogen with deuterium and with the same atomic number, the same charge and the same electrons, the rate moves sevenfold──only the mass changed. Mass enters the frequency──nu proportional to sqrt(k/mu), and isotopic substitution leaves k alone, so the ratio comes from reduced masses only. C--D is 2202.6900 cm^-1, a ratio of 0.734230. One wants 1/sqrt(2)=0.707107 for a doubled mass and does not get it──because the carbon moves too, so the reduced masses stand in ratio 1.854965 and not 2. The heavier the partner the closer to 1/sqrt(2) (O--H/O--D at 0.728010), and between heavy atoms the effect nearly vanishes (carbon 12/13 at 0.980520). And what makes the difference is not the passage of the reaction──vibration does not stop at absolute zero, and E_0=(1)/(2)hnu remains. C--D, having the lower frequency, has the lower zero-point energy and starts deeper in the well. The difference is 4.7690 kJ/mol, and it becomes the difference in activation barrier. The path and the transition state are set by the electrons and do not change with the isotope; only the height of the starting point changed. The same mountain is climbed, and one party starts lower.4.7690 kJ/mol is small as chemistry goes──typical activation energies run 50 to 150. A difference under 5 kJ/mol moves the rate sevenfold because it sits inside an exponential. k_H/k_D=6.8468 at room temperature, 8.1650 at 0 °C, 4.6512 at 100 °C — raise the temperature and RT swallows the difference, and the isotope effect fades. One thing separates them──whether the substituted atom sits on the bond broken in the rate-determining step. On that bond it is 6.8468; elsewhere about 1.1──so measuring k_H/k_D names, from outside, where in the molecule the reaction is happening. To be said honestly──this assumes the vibration is entirely lost at the transition state, so 6.8468 is an upper bound and not a prediction; measured values are usually smaller. And a value far above 7 cannot come from zero-point energy at all, which makes exceeding the bound itself the evidence of tunnelling. One last thing──what moved here is a quantity from outside chemistry. Nuclear masses are settled where chemistry does not look. Inside what chemistry calls “the same element” there remains a difference chemistry does not explain, and it moves the rate sevenfold. On the making of this work: The ideas and content of this work stem from the author's own considerations. Assistance from an AI (a large language model) was used for structuring, English translation, and checking the algebra. Any remaining errors or misinterpretations are solely the author's. Feedback and corrections are sincerely appreciated. ----- 水素を重水素に置き換えると、化学反応の速度が変わる。本稿が問うのは、質量だけを変えて、なぜ速度が動くのかである──答は、止まっているときのエネルギーが質量で決まっているからである。新しい数学定理も新しい法則も主張しない。 本稿の射程(射程注記):新しい数学定理も新しい法則も主張しない──調和振動子の零点エネルギー、換算質量、一次速度論的同位体効果はいずれも標準的である。反応機構を決めない──特定の反応の律速段階や遷移状態の構造には立ち入らない。半古典的な上限だけを見る。トンネル効果を扱わない──低温で観測される k_H/k_D の異常な大きさはトンネル効果によるが、本稿は零点エネルギーだけで説明できる範囲に留まる。触れるにとどめる。二次同位体効果を扱わない──切れない結合の置換による効果には入らない。平衡同位体効果を扱わない──速度ではなく平衡定数がずれる話は主題にしない。非調和性を扱わない──実際の振動は調和的でなく、3000 cm^-1 は代表値である。既刊との関係:論文314 は「定数は変わったか」と問える相手は一つしかないと示した──そこでは無次元の定数だけが問える相手だった。本稿は逆に、同じ元素の中で質量だけを動かして何が変わるかを問う。定数を動かすのではなく、標本を取り替える。論文283 は同じ「Q を二倍」が三機構で 10^17 倍ちがうと示した──そこは原子核で、本稿は化学結合である。どちらも「質量やエネルギーの小さな差が、速度に指数で届く」型である。論文300 は同根か別根かは判定できると示した──本稿では同位体効果と温度効果が同じ指数の中に同居している。論文272 は同じ「2 倍に感じる」が刺激の側で 6.70 倍ひらくと示した──そこでも小さな入力差が大きな出力差になっていた。加えたのは振動数比を換算質量から計算し、1/sqrt(2) と一致しない理由を数で示したこと、零点エネルギー差から k_H/k_D を三つの温度で出したこと、O--H と炭素 12/13 で同じ計算をして効果の大きさが質量比で決まることを確かめたこと、分離子を「切れる結合に軽い原子が付いているか」に置いたことである。 第一に、C--D の伸縮振動数は 2202.69 cm^-1 で、C--H の 0.734230 倍である(第2節)。 第二に、その比は 1/sqrt(2)=0.707107 とは一致しない。換算質量に炭素の 12 が入るからである(第2節)。 第三に、これが本稿の芯である。差を作っているのは反応の途中ではなく、反応前の静止状態である(第3節)。 第四に、零点エネルギーの差 4.7690 kJ/mol が、室温で k_H/k_D=6.8468 を作る(第3節)。 第五に、温度で大きく動く。0 ℃ で 8.1650、100 ℃ で 4.6512(第4節)。 第六に、分離子は「切れる結合に軽い原子が付いているか」である(第5節)。 水素を重水素に置き換えると、原子番号も電荷も電子配置も同じなのに、反応速度が 7 倍動く──変わったのは質量だけである。質量は振動数に入る──nu proportional to sqrt(k/mu) で、同位体置換では k が変わらないので比は換算質量だけで決まる。 C--D は 2202.6900 cm^-1、比は 0.734230 である。質量が二倍だから 1/sqrt(2)=0.707107 かと思うと合わない──振動しているのは水素だけではなく炭素も少し動くので、換算質量の比は 1.854965 であって 2 ではないからである。相手が重いほど 1/sqrt(2) に近づき(O--H/O--D で 0.728010)、重い原子どうしなら効果はほぼ消える(炭素 12/13 で 0.980520)。そして差を作っているのは、反応の途中ではない──絶対零度でも振動は止まらず、E_0=(1)/(2)hnu が残る。 C--D は振動数が低いぶん零点エネルギーも低く、はじめから深い井戸の底にいる。差は 4.7690 kJ/mol で、これがそのまま活性化障壁の差になる。反応の道筋も遷移状態の形も電子が決めるので同位体で変わらず、変わっているのは出発点の高さだけである。同じ山を登るのに、片方だけが低い場所から出発している。4.7690 kJ/mol は化学反応としては小さい──典型的な活性化エネルギーは 50 から 150 kJ/mol である。5 kJ/mol 未満の差が速度を 7 倍動かすのは、それが指数の中に入るからである。室温で k_H/k_D=6.8468、0 ℃ で 8.1650、100 ℃ で 4.6512──温度を上げれば RT が差を飲み込み、同位体効果は消えていく。分けるものは一つ──置換した原子が、律速段階で切れる結合の上にいるかどうか。切れる位置なら 6.8468、切れない位置なら 1.1 程度である──だから k_H/k_D を測れば、分子のどこで反応が起きているかを外から言い当てられる。正直に書いておく──本稿は遷移状態でその振動が完全に失われると仮定しており、6.8468 は上限であって予言値ではない。実測はこれより小さくなるのが普通である。逆に 7 を大きく超えたら零点エネルギーだけでは説明できず、それ自体がトンネル効果の証拠になる。最後に一つ──ここで動いたのは、化学の外にある量である。原子核の質量は、化学が扱わないところで決まっている。化学が「同じ元素」と呼ぶものの中に、化学が説明しない差が残っていて、それが速度を 7 倍動かしている。 作成にあたって:本稿の着想と内容は、著者自身の考察に基づくものです。文章の構成整理や英訳、数式の確認には AI(大規模言語モデル)の助力を得ました。最終的な内容の解釈や誤りがあれば、それらはすべて著者の責に帰します。お気づきの点があれば、ご教示いただければ幸いです。

View source

Similar papers

#computer vision Open access Jun 2016

Software Development in Startup Companies: The Greenfield Startup Model

The results are packaged in the Greenfield Startup Model (GSM), which explains the priority of startups to release the product as quickly as possible, and the need to shorten time-to-market, by speeding up the development through low-precision engineering activities.

Carmine Giardino, Nicolò Paternoster, M. Unterkalmsteiner et al. · 178 citations · ⚡14
#computer vision Open access Oct 2016

Software Startups - A Research Agenda

Software startup companies develop innovative, software-intensive products within limited timeframes and with few resources, searching for sustainable and scalable business models.

M. Unterkalmsteiner, P. Abrahamsson, Xiaofeng Wang et al. · 157 citations · ⚡17
#machine learning Review Open access Oct 2016

“Failures” to be celebrated: an analysis of major pivots of software startups

This study conducts a case survey study based on the secondary data of the major pivots happened in 49 software startups, and demonstrates that customer need pivot is the most common among all pivot types.

Sohaib Shahid Bajwa, Xiaofeng Wang, Anh Nguyen-Duc et al. · 127 citations · ⚡15
#computer vision Review Open access May 2015

A survey study on major technical barriers affecting the decision to adopt cloud services

The comparison of adopter and non-adopter sample reveals three potential adoption inhibitor, security, data privacy, and portability, which underlines the importance of the technical and security perspectives for research investigating the adoption of technology.

Nattakarn Phaphoom, Xiaofeng Wang, S. Samuel et al. · 111 citations · ⚡8
#computer vision Open access Feb 2018

Lean Internal Startups for Software Product Innovation in Large Companies: Enablers and Inhibitors

This study investigates how Lean internal startup facilitates software product innovation in large companies and identifies its enablers and inhibitors, and shows the potential of the method-in-action framework to investigate the Lean startup approach in non-startup context.

Henry Edison, Nina M. Smørsgård, Xiaofeng Wang et al. · 78 citations · ⚡6
#computer vision Conference Sep 2010

Exploring the Sources of Waste in Kanban Software Development Projects

The application of agile software methods and more recently the integration of Lean practices contribute to the trend of continuous improvement in the software industry. One such area warranting proper empirical evidence is a project’s operational efficiency when using the Kanban method. This short paper takes a new angle and explores waste in the Kanban-driven software development project context. A preliminary research model is presented for helping the consequent replication of the study. The results from the empirical analysis suggest Kanban can be an effective method in visualizing and organizing the current work, but does not prevent waste from creeping in, although the overall project outcome may be successful.

Marko Ikonen, Petri Kettunen, Nilay V. Oza et al. · 67 citations · ⚡9

Related blog posts

MIT News · Artificial Intelligence Sep 14, 2026

New method enables AI for safety-critical situations

The “HardFlow” algorithm could help generative AI models produce high-quality outputs that obey strict requirements when “pretty close” doesn’t cut it.

GPT-Lab Sep 10, 2026

Responsible AI Must Consider Its Afterlife

AI may appear weightless, but every model depends on physical infrastructure. To understand responsible AI, we need to look beyond algorithms and consider the entire lifecycle of the hardware behind them. The post Responsible AI Must Consider Its Afterlife appeared first on GPT-Lab.

We use cookies to run the site and, with your consent, for analytics and to show ads. See our Cookie Policy.