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Strength Is a Function of Volume, Not a Constant of the Material ── Multiply the Volume by 1000 and a Material of Scatter m=2 Falls to 0.0316 of Its Strength ── The Volume Factor That Halves the Strength Is Exactly 2^m: 4 at m=2 and 1048576 at m=20 ── [Paper 344]

Sep 2026 · Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research)

Abstract

The strength of a material appears in handbooks as one number. This paper asks what number that is──the answer is a number that means nothing unless the specimen volume is written beside it. No new mathematical theorem and no new law is claimed. Scope of this paper (scope note): No new mathematical theorem and no new law is claimed──the Weibull distribution, the weakest-link model, and the size effect sigma proportional to V^-1/m are all standard. We do not build fracture mechanics──the physics of flaw populations and of crack initiation and growth is not entered. It is mentioned and no more. We do not predict m──the Weibull modulus is something measured; this paper only looks at what follows from a given m. We do not treat ductile materials──where yielding redistributes stress, weakest-link does not hold. Brittle materials (ceramics, glass, fibres) are assumed. We do not treat stress distribution──uniform stress is assumed; non-uniform fields such as bending need an effective-volume correction. We do not treat fatigue──size effects under cyclic loading are not the subject. Relation to earlier papers: Paper 343 showed the size of the hole is not in the stress concentration──there size does not act; here size decides everything. Within one subject, the failure of materials, a quantity carrying size stands beside one that does not. Paper 342 showed the same two materials differing 16.93-fold by direction──there stiffness, here strength, was not a constant of the material. What is called “a constant of the material” has twice not been one. Paper 334 showed that what is added is precision and not value──there raising n improves things; here it worsens them. The difference between taking a mean and taking a minimum. Paper 300 showed whether two things share a root is decidable──the 1/sqrt(n) of a mean and the n^-1/m of a minimum have distinct roots by that test. What is added is showing that the halving volume factor has the closed form 2^m, checking against a Monte Carlo of twenty thousand trials, confirming as a counter-case that the size effect vanishes as m->infinity, and putting the separator on mean against worst case. First, strength follows sigma proportional to V^-1/m, and at m=2 a thousandfold volume gives 0.0316 (Section 2). Second, this is the core of the paper. What acts is not the mean strength but the scatter m alone (Section 3). Third, the volume factor that halves the strength is exactly 2^m (Section 3). Fourth, that is 4 at m=2, 1024 at m=10, and 1048576 at m=20 (Section 3). Fifth, a Monte Carlo confirms it. The minimum over 1000 links measures 0.027956 against a theoretical 0.028025 (Section 4). Sixth, the separator is whether the mean acts or the worst case does (Section 5). A brittle material fails from its weakest flaw, so a specimen of volume V is a chain of N=V/v elements and the strength of the whole is the smallest of them──and with more links the weakest one is weaker. The size effect takes closed form──sigma_2/sigma_1=(V_1/V_2)^1/m. A material of m=2 falls to 0.0316 of its strength, a factor of 31.6228, on a thousandfold volume. The same material, same composition, same process, and only the size differs. At m=50 the same thousandfold gives 0.8710, so m=2 and m=50 respond 27.5423-fold apart. And the mean strength does not appear in the formula──however strong the material, the size of the size effect is set by the scatter alone. Solving for the volume factor that halves the strength gives exactly 2^m──4 at m=2, 1024 at m=10, and 1048576 at m=20. The closed form says what m means: it measures, to base two, how many decades of volume it takes to halve the strength. As m->infinity the size effect disappears──at m=1000 a thousandfold volume gives 0.993116, a drop of 0.7 per cent. So “strength is a constant of the material” is the approximation m=infinity. It serves for metals because m is large and fails for ceramics because m is small, and both live inside the same formula. Random numbers confirm it──drawing n Weibull values and taking the minimum, twenty thousand times: at n=1000, 0.027956 measured against 0.028025 in theory, all four values within 0.3 per cent. The n=1 theory, 0.886227, is Gamma(1.5) itself, an independently known value. Formula and dice, two independent routes, reach the same 0.0316. One thing separates them──when many are gathered, whether what acts is the mean or the worst. Fusing n sensors in Paper 334 raised accuracy; joining n elements here lowers strength──one and the same “gather n” acting in opposite directions. The rates differ too: n^-1/2 against n^-1/m, coinciding only at m=2 — coincident numbers with distinct roots. To be said honestly──the model assumes flaws distributed independently; if they cluster or concentrate at a surface, the effective volume is not the geometric one. A ductile material yields and redistributes stress, ceases to be a weakest link, and shows a smaller size effect. One last thing──a handbook strength is a value measured on a specimen. Real parts are usually larger. So that number always errs on the optimistic side for the real part, and by how much cannot be known without measuring m. On the making of this work: The ideas and content of this work stem from the author's own considerations. Assistance from an AI (a large language model) was used for structuring, English translation, and checking the algebra. Any remaining errors or misinterpretations are solely the author's. Feedback and corrections are sincerely appreciated. ----- 材料の強度は、便覧に一つの数として載っている。本稿が問うのは、その数は何の数かである──答は、試験片の体積を書かなければ意味を持たない数である。新しい数学定理も新しい法則も主張しない。 本稿の射程(射程注記):新しい数学定理も新しい法則も主張しない──ワイブル分布、最弱リンク模型、寸法効果 sigma proportional to V^-1/m はいずれも標準的である。破壊力学を作らない──欠陥の分布の物理、き裂の発生と進展には立ち入らない。触れるにとどめる。 m を予言しない──ワイブル係数は測るものであって、本稿は与えられた m に対して何が起きるかだけを見る。延性材料を扱わない──降伏して応力を再分配する材料では最弱リンクが成り立たない。脆性材料(セラミクス、ガラス、繊維)を想定する。応力分布を扱わない──一様応力を仮定する。曲げなど不均一な場では有効体積の補正が要る。疲労を扱わない──繰り返し荷重下の寸法効果は主題にしない。既刊との関係:論文343 は応力集中に穴の大きさが入っていないと示した──そこでは大きさが効かず、ここでは大きさがすべてを決める。同じ「材料の破壊」の中で、大きさが入る量と入らない量が並んでいる。論文342 は同じ二材料が向きだけで 16.93 倍ちがうと示した──そこでは剛性が、ここでは強度が、材料の定数でなかった。「材料の定数」と呼ばれるものが二度とも定数でない。論文334 は足すのが値ではなく精度だと示した──そこでは n を増やすと良くなり、ここでは増やすと悪くなる。平均を取るか、最小を取るかの差である。論文300 は同根か別根かは判定できると示した──平均の 1/sqrt(n) と最小の n^-1/m は、判定に掛ければ別根である。加えたのは強度を半分にする体積倍率が 2^m という閉じた式になることを示したこと、モンテカルロ二万試行で理論値と突き合わせたこと、m->infinity で寸法効果が消えることを反例として確かめたこと、分離子を「平均か最悪か」に置いたことである。 第一に、強度は sigma proportional to V^-1/m に従い、m=2 なら体積 1000 倍で 0.0316 倍になる(第2節)。 第二に、これが本稿の芯である。効いているのは平均強度ではなく、ばらつき m だけである(第3節)。 第三に、強度を半分にする体積倍率はちょうど 2^m である(第3節)。 第四に、m=2 なら 4 倍、m=10 なら 1024 倍、m=20 なら 1048576 倍である(第3節)。 第五に、モンテカルロで裏を取った。リンク 1000 本の最小値は実測 0.027956、理論 0.028025(第4節)。 第六に、分離子は「平均が効くか、最悪が効くか」である(第5節)。 脆性材料は最も弱い欠陥から壊れるので、体積 V の試験片は N=V/v 個の小片の鎖であり、全体の強度は最小の強度で決まる──そして輪の数が増えれば、最も弱い輪はより弱くなる。寸法効果は閉じた形で書ける──sigma_2/sigma_1=(V_1/V_2)^1/m である。 m=2 の材料は体積を 1000 倍にすると強度が 0.0316 倍、31.6228 分の 1 になる。同じ材料、同じ組成、同じ製法で、大きさだけが違う。 m=50 なら同じ 1000 倍で 0.8710 にしか落ちず、m が 2 か 50 かで応答が 27.5423 倍ちがう。そして式に平均強度が現れない──どれだけ強い材料でも、寸法効果の大きさはばらつき m だけで決まる。強度を半分にするのに要る体積倍率を解くと、ちょうど 2^m になる──m=2 なら 4 倍、m=10 なら 1024 倍、m=20 なら 1048576 倍である。この閉じた式が m の意味を言い切っている:m は「強度が半分になるまでに何桁の体積を要するか」を 2 を底として測っている。 m->infinity で寸法効果は消える──m=1000 なら体積 1000 倍でも 0.993116 で 0.7 パーセントしか落ちない。つまり「強度が材料の定数である」という言い方は、m=infinity の近似である。金属で通用するのは m が大きいから、セラミクスやガラスで通用しないのは m が小さいからで、どちらも同じ式の中にいる。乱数でも裏を取った──ワイブル分布から n 個引いて最小値を取り、二万回繰り返す。 n=1000 で実測 0.027956、理論 0.028025、四つの n すべてで 0.3 パーセント以内。 n=1 の理論値 0.886227 は Gamma(1.5) そのもので、独立に知られた値と一致する。式と乱数という独立な二方法が、同じ 0.0316 倍に着いた。分けるものは一つ──たくさん集めたときに効くのが、平均なのか、最悪なのか。論文334 では n 台のセンサを融合すると精度が上がり、ここでは n 個の小片を繋ぐと強度が下がる──同じ「n 個集める」が逆向きに効いている。落ち方も別で、平均は n^-1/2、最悪は n^-1/m である──m=2 のときだけたまたま同じ形になるが、論文300 の基準に当てれば別根である。正直に書いておく──この模型は欠陥が独立に分布していることを前提にしており、欠陥が集まっていたり表面に偏っていれば有効体積は幾何的な体積と一致しない。延性材料は降伏して応力を再分配するので最弱リンクではなくなり、寸法効果は小さくなる。最後に一つ──便覧の強度は、試験片の大きさで測った値である。実物はたいていそれより大きい。だからその数は、実物については必ず楽観的な側に外れている。どれだけ外れているかは、m を測らなければ分からない。 作成にあたって:本稿の着想と内容は、著者自身の考察に基づくものです。文章の構成整理や英訳、数式の確認には AI(大規模言語モデル)の助力を得ました。最終的な内容の解釈や誤りがあれば、それらはすべて著者の責に帰します。お気づきの点があれば、ご教示いただければ幸いです。

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