Alzheimer's disease (AD) arises from heterogeneous biological processes, and long‐term environmental exposures may become biologically embedded, as reflected in epigenetic clocks.
While most studies of Alzheimer's disease (AD) examine cross‐sectional relationships among biomarkers, longitudinal relationships are also highly relevant.
Increased age-related biological changes have been causally linked to various pathologies in the brain, including Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. There is also evidence that schizophrenia could be included in this group of brain disorders that may actually be manifestations of a broader multisystemic premature ageing phenotype.
Evidence regarding the association between physical activity (PA) and Alzheimer's disease (AD)–related biomarkers is scarce and inconsistent.
Cardiovascular disease patients exhibit increased neurodegenerative diseases and mortality risks, implying a shared heart‐brain aging pathway, and the association of Phenotypic age (PhenoAge) with mortality and the mediating role of brain health remain unclear in CVD patients.
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