When remediation creates toxicological risk: transformation products and the soil exposome in contaminated agroecosystems.

Heavy Metal Contamination in the Soil-Microbe-Plant Nexus: A Comprehensive Review on Mechanisms, Toxicological Impacts, and Integrated Remediation Approaches

Pharmaceutical Contaminants in Aquatic Environments: A Critical Synthesis of Sources, Ecological Risks and Bioremediation Strategies

Pharmaceutical residues are now routinely detected in wastewater-impacted aquatic environments because medicinal compounds and their metabolites enter sewerage, industrial effluents, agricultural drainage and receiving waters through multiple, often continuous pathways. Their environmental significance cannot be inferred from occurrence alone: risk depends on potency, exposure duration, mixtures, transformation products, species sensitivity and the capacity of treatment systems to reduce biologically active mass. This critical narrative review integrates evidence on sources, ecological effects and bioremediation, with emphasis on wastewater-impacted freshwaters and on technologies that rely substantially on microbial, fungal, algal or plant-associated processes. Literature was selected through live searches of multidisciplinary and environmental or biomedical scholarly sources, supplemented by citation searching and DOI verification. The strongest causal ecological evidence comes from whole-ecosystem work with endocrine-active pharmaceuticals, while laboratory and field studies also support concern for behavioural disruption, chronic sublethal effects and antibiotic-driven selection for antimicrobial resistance. Nevertheless, extrapolation remains difficult because monitoring is dominated by parent compounds and targeted analytes, whereas mixtures and transformation products are incompletely characterised. Conventional activated sludge provides variable and compound-specific attenuation; apparent parent removal may reflect sorption or transformation rather than mineralisation. Membrane bioreactors, adapted bacterial consortia, white-rot fungi, microalgae and constructed wetlands can improve removal under favourable conditions, but evidence is uneven across scales and frequently relies on high test concentrations or parent disappearance. The synthesis indicates that no single biological technology provides universal control. Risk reduction is more defensibly pursued through source control, robust biological treatment and targeted polishing, supported by mass balances, transformation-product screening, effect-based endpoints and antimicrobial-resistance assessment. Future research should prioritise trace-level, full-scale comparisons and standardised demonstrations that connect chemical removal to reduced biological hazard.

Nanotechnology-Enabled Remediation of Contaminated Soils: Mechanisms, Soil Constraints, Environmental Risks, and Implications for Sustainable Land Management

Engineered nanomaterials have been increasingly proposed for the treatment of contaminated soils. Nevertheless, most available evidence has been obtained in water, artificial substrates or short-term laboratory experiments, and performance in real soil is substantially more variable. This review examines nanoscale zero-valent iron, photocatalytic metal oxides, carbon-based nanomaterials, and supported or hybrid formulations, with particular attention to the soil properties and contaminant characteristics that control their mobility, transformation, reactivity, and persistence. Nano-enabled treatments can decrease the mobility of arsenic, chromium, lead, and other potentially toxic elements and can promote the degradation of selected pesticides and hydrocarbons. However, opposite responses have also been reported, including mobilisation of non-target elements, nanoparticle aggregation and passivation, effects on microbial communities and plants, contaminant rebound, and potential transport beyond the treated zone. Environmental assessment should therefore consider both the target contaminant and the applied or transformed nanomaterial, together with ecological and occupational exposure pathways. Current evidence does not support nanoremediation as a general replacement for conventional technologies. Its main value lies in its use as a site-specific component of integrated remediation strategies selected according to soil properties, contaminant behaviour, treatment scale, cost, life-cycle impacts, and future land use. European field experience remains limited, particularly in unsaturated soils, and no harmonised EU-wide authorisation procedure specifically for soil nanoremediation currently exists. Wider implementation will require realistic field trials, long-term monitoring, safer and recoverable formulations, transparent regulatory assessment, and evaluation of soil functions and ecosystem-service recovery. A site-specific decision framework is proposed to support material selection, risk–benefit evaluation, and responsible implementation.

A critical review of mechanistic insights and technological advancement for the amelioration of Pb and Cd through phytoremediation.

Heavy metal contamination is a major environmental concern due to its persistence, bioaccumulation, and long-term impacts on ecosystems and human health. Among toxic metals, cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) are particularly harmful because of their high toxicity and carcinogenic potential, posing serious risks to plants, animals, and humans even at low concentrations. These metals often enter soil and water through industrial activities, mining, agricultural inputs, and improper waste disposal. Conventional remediation methods, such as chemical treatment, soil excavation, and stabilization, have been used to manage contaminated sites; however, they are often costly, labour- intensive, and may cause secondary environmental pollution, creating a need for more sustainable alternatives. Phytoremediation has emerged as an eco-friendly and cost-effective approach that utilizes the natural ability of plants to absorb, accumulate, detoxify, or stabilize contaminants from soil, water, and air using solar energy. The objectives of this review are to examine the mechanisms of phytoremediation and evaluate recent advance technologies that enhance its efficiency, with a focus on plant growth-promoting microorganisms, biochar, nanomaterials, CRISPR/Cas9-based genetic engineering, isotope monitoring, and AI/ML tools. The novelty of this review lies in its integrated assessment of these emerging technologies as complementary strategies for advancing sustainable heavy metal remediation. Overall, these developments highlight the growing potential of phytoremediation as a sustainable strategy for environmental cleanup. Nevertheless, challenges related to large-scale application, plant tolerance to heavy metals, and long-term ecological sustainability remain, requiring further research to enhance its practical implementation in environmental management.

Green technologies for soil remediation: a systematic review

Heavy metals, petroleum hydrocarbons, microplastics, and pesticides exhibit mutagenic, carcinogenic, immunotoxic, and teratogenic properties, leading to significant changes in the soil’s physical, chemical, and microbiological characteristics. This poses a substantial threat to overall ecosystem health. Consequently, addressing soil contamination requires the prompt adoption of sustainable physico-chemical and bio-based remediation approaches. This review provides a systematic analysis of current soil remediation methods that utilise green technologies. Particular attention is given to phytoremediation techniques, the use of soil conditioners such as biochar, hydrochar, and biopolymers, as well as the application of layered double hydroxides. The mechanisms by which these technologies mitigate pollutants such as heavy metals, organic contaminants, and nutrients are analysed, highlighting their role in enhancing soil health while minimising ecological impact. By integrating these green approaches, sustainable soil remediation can be achieved, supporting environmental restoration and agricultural productivity. This review offers valuable insights for researchers and policymakers in advancing eco-friendly soil rehabilitation strategies.

Environmental occurrence, human exposure, toxicological effects, and management implications of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon derivatives.

A review of emission sources, multimedia fate, different exposure routes, mixture toxicity, and management limitations of PAH derivatives provides a basis for improving risk assessment and environmental management of PAH derivatives.