Forest Degradation and Desertification in a Changing Climate

Abstract

Forest degradation and desertification are closely connected components of a broader socio-ecological problem in which land-use pressure, climatic stress and declining ecosystem resilience interact across landscapes. Forest degradation does not necessarily involve complete removal of tree cover; it may occur through biomass loss, selective extraction, fire, fragmentation, altered species composition, soil deterioration and impaired regeneration. These changes can weaken the capacity of forests to protect soil, regulate water, store carbon and sustain biodiversity. In dryland and other environmentally vulnerable settings, such deterioration may increase susceptibility to land degradation and desertification. This integrative review synthesises evidence on the major anthropogenic and climatic drivers of forest degradation, the ecological pathways linking forest condition with land degradation, the environmental and socio-economic consequences of these processes, and the principal restoration and management responses. Recent literature shows that degradation is frequently underestimated when assessment relies only on forest area, because structural and functional losses may persist within areas still classified as forest. Climate change acts as a threat multiplier by increasing heat stress, drought risk, rainfall variability and fire susceptibility, while degraded ecosystems may become less capable of recovering from climatic extremes. The review further shows that restoration outcomes depend on ecological context, governance, local participation and long-term monitoring rather than on tree-planting numbers alone. Based on the evidence, a Forest–Land Resilience Framework is proposed, linking prevention, protection, sustainable management, restoration, participation, monitoring and policy integration. The central argument is that durable progress requires simultaneous reduction of degradation drivers and recovery of ecological functions; restoration without changes in land-use practices and governance is unlikely to provide lasting resilience.