From bits to atoms: A survey of cross-layer safety in Embodied AI
Abstract
Embodied Artificial Intelligence (AI) introduces cyber–physical risks because digital failures and attacks can cause physical harm. This survey organizes embodied AI safety through a four-layer reference architecture — comprising the physical interaction, system and middleware, algorithm and decision, and cloud–edge and data layers — and uses it to connect vulnerabilities, propagation paths, and safeguards across the system stack. It traces the evolution of safety paradigms and examines how faults and attacks cross architectural boundaries to produce physical consequences. Furthermore, the survey systematizes composite attack chains, outlines multi-layered defense strategies, and reviews representative embodied safety benchmarks. Ultimately, we advocate for unifying software alignment with rigorous hardware constraints to build trustworthy systems capable of operating safely within human-centric environments.