Clarifying Online Cooperative Learning in EFL Contexts: A Systematic Review of Learning Outcomes, the Five Core Elements, and Implementation Challenges

Abstract

Although online cooperative learning has been widely examined in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) education, it is often conceptually blurred with less structured forms of collaborative learning. This review synthesised empirical articles on online cooperative learning in EFL contexts, focusing on study characteristics, reported outcomes, the operationalisation of Johnson and Johnson’s five elements, and implementation challenges. PRISMA 2020, Eric, Web of Science, Scopus, and ProQuest were searched for empirical English-language journal articles published up to June 2026. Twenty-five studies met the eligibility criteria and were appraised using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT). Mixed-methods designs were the most common (56%, n = 14), university settings dominated the studies (80%, n = 20), and writing was the leading focus (40%, n = 10). Of the 17 studies using inferential tests of language-related performance, 16 reported statistically significant positive gains or associations, although the strength of evidence varied. Positive interdependence was explicitly reported in 20 studies and implied in 5. In contrast, small-group skills and group processing were explicitly reported in only[1] 3 and 7 studies, respectively. The main implementation challenges involved weak technological–pedagogical alignment, insufficient instructional scaffolding, and uneven participation and accountability. The findings suggest that online cooperative learning should be conceptualized not according to named cooperative structures alone, but according to how the online cooperative EFL learning environment, instructional configuration, and the five core cooperative learning elements are integrated. Future research should design clearly structured online cooperative EFL courses across more diverse educational settings, language areas, and learner groups, particularly for learners with lower language proficiency or limited digital literacy.