A REVIEW OF NANOFIBER & 3D PRINT SCAFFOLDS FOR TISSUE ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS

Abstract

Tissue engineering aims to develop biological substitutes that restore, maintain, or improve tissue function, with a central challenge being the fabrication of scaffolds that replicate the complex structural and physicochemical properties of the native extracellular matrix. Over the past decades, a wide array of fabrication methods and polymers has been explored to create optimal scaffolds that support cell adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation, while promoting the regeneration of damaged tissues. Among these, electrospinning and three-dimensional printing have emerged as particularly promising technologies. Electrospinning enables the production of nanofibrous matrices that closely mimic the natural tissue topography, whereas three-dimensional printing offers unprecedented control over macroscopic scaffold architecture and porosity. However, each technique possesses inherent limitations; electrospun scaffolds often lack sufficient mechanical strength and hinder cellular infiltration, while three dimensional printed constructs typically fail to replicate the nano scale fibrous environment essential for cell matrix interactions. This review systematically explores the synergistic potential of integrating electrospun nanofibers with three dimensional printed frameworks to create hierarchical hybrid scaffolds. We critically examine the fabrication strategies, material considerations, and application specific outcomes of such combined approaches in regenerating tissues such as bone, cartilage, and skin. Finally, we discuss current challenges and future directions for this converging manufacturing paradigm, highlighting its capacity to bridge the multi scale gap in tissue engineering.