Aug 2026· Small Methods· pp.
e70988
· 0 citations· 55 references
Medicine
Abstract
Three-dimensional, interconnected hydrogel networks are central to tissue engineering and disease modeling, where tailored pore architecture and mechanical robustness are essential for supporting cellular functions. However, the limited ability to engineer microstructural features in vat polymerization 3D-printed natural hydrogels often compromises scaffold performance, as oversized pores reduce cell attachment and cell-cell interactions while smooth pore walls lack essential topographical cues. Here, we report an emulsion-based ink for vat polymerization 3D printing that enables the fabrication of hydrogels with finely tunable and highly interconnected porous architectures. An oil-in-water resin formulated using gelatin methacrylate (GelMA) contains stable solvent nanodroplets that act as sacrificial templates during photopolymerization. Removal of the dispersed phase yields additive-free porous hydrogels with pore sizes ranging from 0.66 to 46.15 µm and a 2.5-fold enhancement in compressive toughness. This strategy is compatible with digital light processing (DLP) and broadly applicable to multiple photocurable biopolymers, including alginate methacrylate (ALMA) and hyaluronic acid methacrylate (HAMA). The resulting porous scaffolds promote enhanced cell attachment, proliferation, and cell-cell interactions, highlighting the potential of this vat polymerization-compatible platform for advanced biofabrication.
This study provides a practical framework for creating intrafilamentary porosity into 3D-printed PCL scaffolds with improved surface-mediated biological performance.
Mikaela Kutrolli, Noah S Pereira, Delaram Ghanbariamin et al.· ACS Biomaterials Science & E...· 0 citations
Hydrogels are three‐dimensional polymer networks that closely resemble the natural extracellular matrix (ECM), making them strong candidates for wound scaffolds. Their fabrication can be advanced through three‐dimensional (3D) printing, a technique that enables precise construction of hydrogels with complex and bioactive architectures. Owing to their high‐water content, biocompatibility, and tuneable mechanical strength, hydrogels are well suited as printing inks. Unlike conventional hydrogels, which often lack sufficient mechanical and bionic properties, 3D printing allows the production of structures tailored for wound healing, especially for chronic and diabetic wounds, as well as for targeted tissue regeneration. This review provides a comprehensive overview of multi‐functional 3D‐printed hydrogels. It begins by summarizing key 3D‐printing technologies, including photocuring‐based methods such as Digital Light Processing (DLP), Stereolithography (SLA), and Two‐Photon Polymerization (TPP), followed by inkjet, extrusion, and laser‐assisted printing. Common polymers used to develop bioinks are then introduced, categorized into natural and synthetic types; in many cases, composite blends are formulated to enhance printability and mechanical performance. The review also outlines essential bioink design principles required for successful 3D printing. Subsequent sections highlight applications of 3D‐printed hydrogels, including hemostatic, antibacterial, self‐healing, smart, microneedle‐based, and machine‐learning‐assisted systems, concluding with challenges and future prospects.
N. A. Ismail, Mohamad Shazeli Che Zain· Polymer Engineering & Sc...· 0 citations
3D bioprinting enables the layer-by-layer fabrication of living tissue constructs and supports patient-specific customization. This technology holds strong promises for regenerative medicine and drug discovery. However, its broader translation remains limited by material variability, safety considerations, cost constraints and regulatory requirements. This study investigates the use of safe, affordable and regulatory-compliant pharmaceutical polymers as biomaterials for 3D bioprinting. It specifically focuses on hydrogels formulated from Starch 1500®, maltodextrin and sodium alginate. The objective is to assess their potential applications in skin tissue engineering and oral drug delivery through semisolid extrusion-based 3D bioprinting techniques. Ionic crosslinking of the hydrogel was confirmed by FTIR analysis. The hydrogel exhibited a viscosity of 1.56 × 106 mPa·s, supporting semisolid extrusion bioprinting and excellent printability under ambient conditions. It enabled the fabrication of multilayer scaffolds with uniform filaments, well-defined square pore geometry and good shape fidelity. Rheological analysis showed shear-thinning behavior under applied stress, 87% thixotropic recovery and predominantly solid-like behavior at rest. Cast films showed a tensile strength of 33.9 MPa with limited extensibility, whereas lyophilized scaffolds exhibited high porosity and an average pore size of 39.2 μm. The 3D-printed scaffolds swollen upto 72% within 24 h and showed the onset of degradation after 2 weeks. Biological evaluation confirmed non-cytotoxicity, with more than 70% cell viability in skin-relevant L929 and HaCaT cells and good hemocompatibility, indicated by 5.0% hemolysis. Confocal microscopy further showed cell growth on the crosslinked hydrogel, supporting their potential for skin tissue engineering. Glimepiride-loaded bioinks were successfully formulated into chewable tablets for drug delivery, which exhibited acceptable physical properties. The tablets demonstrated excellent content uniformity (100.4%), while dissolution results showed sustained-release profiles over a time period of four hours. Our research indicates that pharmaceutical-grade polymer-based hydrogels are promising candidates for skin tissue engineering and drug delivery through 3D bioprinting. The findings of this study underscore the potential of these formulations to advance bioprinting technologies and related applications.
H. K. Bankhede, Maheswari Sivaravi, A. P. Raiturker et al.· Journal of Biological Engine...· 0 citations
Tissue engineering aims to develop biological substitutes that restore, maintain, or improve tissue function, with a central challenge being the fabrication of scaffolds that replicate the complex structural and physicochemical properties of the native extracellular matrix. Over the past decades, a wide array of fabrication methods and polymers has been explored to create optimal scaffolds that support cell adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation, while promoting the regeneration of damaged tissues. Among these, electrospinning and three-dimensional printing have emerged as particularly promising technologies. Electrospinning enables the production of nanofibrous matrices that closely mimic the natural tissue topography, whereas three-dimensional printing offers unprecedented control over macroscopic scaffold architecture and porosity. However, each technique possesses inherent limitations; electrospun scaffolds often lack sufficient mechanical strength and hinder cellular infiltration, while three dimensional printed constructs typically fail to replicate the nano scale fibrous environment essential for cell matrix interactions. This review systematically explores the synergistic potential of integrating electrospun nanofibers with three dimensional printed frameworks to create hierarchical hybrid scaffolds. We critically examine the fabrication strategies, material considerations, and application specific outcomes of such combined approaches in regenerating tissues such as bone, cartilage, and skin. Finally, we discuss current challenges and future directions for this converging manufacturing paradigm, highlighting its capacity to bridge the multi scale gap in tissue engineering.
M. Bozdağ, Muhammet Sefa Izgordu, Mehmet Niyazi Durukan et al.· Konya Journal of Engineering...· 0 citations
Conductive hydrogels have emerged as promising materials for soft tissue interfacing by combining tissue-like mechanical compliance with electrical conductivity, thereby enabling improved electrical communication with electroactive biological tissues. This work presents an electroconductive composite hydrogel fabricated via light-based vat-polymerization by integrating a choline-based bio-ionic liquid (IL) with gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA). The resulting hydrogels demonstrate tunable conductivity, structural integrity, and high print fidelity when fabricated using digital light processing (DLP) light-based 3D printing. Electrical conductivity was optimized at 20% v/v IL concentration, with the hydrogels demonstrating stable performance for over 28 days. A food-grade photoabsorber was integrated into the formulation to improve DLP resolution and was effectively removed after printing process. The hydrogels supported the human mesenchymal stem cells' viability and proliferation, confirming their cytocompatibility. They also promoted enhanced maturation of primary neurons, demonstrating a supportive microenvironment for neural cells. In vivo implantation of indocyanine green-loaded hydrogels exhibited sustained stability and robust retention of signal over a period of 4 weeks, with histological analysis indicating seamless integration with surrounding tissues. Impedance spectroscopy at both gut and spinal cord interfaces illustrated that GelMA/IL composites achieved the lowest impedance across a range of frequencies, outperforming both GelMA-only and tissue-only conditions. Collectively, these findings position light-based vat-polymerized electroconductive composites as a promising platform for the development of anatomically conformal materials tailored for soft tissue interfacing.
Kamil Elkhoury, Jiarui Zhou, Sadaf Usmani et al.· International Journal of Bio...· 0 citations
3D printed biodegradable hydrogels have great potential in the clinic since they synergistically combine the unique advantages derived from the personalization of the medical device imparted by 3D printing, and the recognized clinical benefits of hydrogels. Developing 3D printable polyether esters, named “inks” here, enabling the optimal printing of custom‐made biodegradable hydrogels constitutes the keystone of this study. These inks comprise polyethylene oxide (PEO) chains that impart the needed hydrophilicity, and caprolactone or lactoyl units that confer to them their required biodegradability. Additionally, the inks are end‐capped with C═C double bonds to enable their UV photo‐polymerization during the printing process. They absorb large amounts of water, display enhanced mechanical properties, and degrade over a broad time range, spanning from less than two months to more than a year. The excellent printability of the inks is demonstrated by printing various mono‐ and bi‐ink complex architectures. Aiming at shedding light on the effect of crosslinking on the degradation behavior of the 3D printed hydrogels, their thermoplastic counterparts, having the same composition but chain extended instead of being C = C end‐capped, are synthesized and their degradability studied. Fundamentally degrading by a bulk degradation mechanism, the crosslinked hydrogels also display features characteristic of surface erosion.
Nicola Mansour, D. Cohn· Advanced Functional Material...· 0 citations
We use cookies to run the site and, with your consent, for analytics and to show ads.
See our Cookie Policy.
