Screen exposure and cognitive outcomes in school-aged children and adolescents: a narrative review through the lens of Cognitive Load Theory
Abstract
The increasing integration of digital media into children's lives has raised concerns about possible associations between screen exposure and cognitive development. This narrative review synthesizes empirical evidence published from 2014 to 2025 on associations between screen exposure and attention, memory, executive function, and related developmental outcomes among school-aged children (6–11 years) and adolescents (12–18 years) and interprets the findings through Cognitive Load Theory. Searches of PubMed, PsycINFO, and Google Scholar were conducted in May 2025 and updated in June 2025. Following duplicate removal and screening by one reviewer, 13 empirical studies were included. The evidence encompassed cross-sectional, longitudinal, neuroimaging, and Mendelian randomization designs. Higher or poorly structured screen exposure was generally associated with attention difficulties, weaker working memory or executive function, academic challenges, and differences in brain regions involved in cognitive control. However, findings were not uniform: interactive, purposeful, and developmentally appropriate digital activities were sometimes associated with neutral or beneficial cognitive outcomes. Cognitive Load Theory offers a plausible interpretation in which rapid, distracting, or multitasked media increases extraneous cognitive load and leaves fewer working-memory resources for task-relevant processing and schema construction. Because most included studies were observational and screen exposure was measured inconsistently, the evidence does not establish that screen use directly causes cognitive impairment. Future research should use longitudinal or experimental designs, objective and multidimensional measures of digital use, and direct measures of cognitive load. Guidance for families and educators should consider content, context, timing, and purpose in addition to duration.