An exploration of collaboration strategies across levels of co-presence in VR exergames

Abstract

Exergames in virtual reality (VR) can combine physical activity with engaging social play. While there are clear benefits of social play, the increasing shift toward remote interaction creates a critical need to understand how embodied collaboration functions when physical proximity and its associated social cues are absent. We present a VR rowing exergame with haptic oar devices that synchronize boat motion and provide physical resistance, requiring players to coordinate on both individual and joint tasks. To investigate the role of co-presence, we conducted a within-subjects study with 15 groups ( $$N=30$$ ) across three settings (Co-located without cues, Co-located with video cues, and remote) differing in physical proximity and availability of social cues. Quantitative results showed comparable performance and exertion across conditions, suggesting collaboration remained robust despite spatial differences. In contrast, interviews revealed nuanced variations in strategies, immersion, and cognitive load management. We further note that several design decisions may have constrained the expression of co-presence, and we frame our findings accordingly as a basis for higher-fidelity replication. Together, these findings show that collaborative VR exergames can support effective teamwork across co-presence settings, while also highlighting design opportunities for strengthening remote social play.