Ecology, biosynthesis, and food applications of postbiotics

Abstract

Postbiotics, defined as preparations of inanimate microorganisms and/or their metabolites that confer health benefits on the host, have recently emerged as promising bioactive compounds with broad applications in the food industry. Compared with probiotics, postbiotics offer greater stability, a longer shelf life, easier standardization, and fewer safety concerns, making them attractive candidates for industrial use. Despite the growing interest in postbiotics, information regarding their ecological origins, biosynthetic pathways, mechanisms of action, and practical food applications remains fragmented. This review comprehensively summarizes the current knowledge on the ecology, classification, biosynthesis, characterization, and biological activities of postbiotics. Particular attention is given to the microbial sources and environmental factors influencing postbiotic production, as well as the major classes of bioactive compounds, including organic acids, bacteriocins, enzymes, peptides, exopolysaccharides, and cell wall components. The molecular mechanisms underlying their antimicrobial, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and anti-inflammatory effects are also discussed. Furthermore, recent advances in the application of postbiotics as natural preservatives and functional ingredients in meat, dairy, seafood, and other food products are critically reviewed. Evidence from recent studies demonstrates that postbiotics can effectively inhibit foodborne pathogens, improve product quality and safety, extend shelf life, and contribute to the development of clean-label food products. Nevertheless, challenges related to production optimization, standardization, regulatory approval, and large-scale commercialization remain significant barriers to their widespread adoption. This review highlights the growing potential of postbiotics as sustainable and multifunctional ingredients for next-generation food systems and identifies key research priorities for their future industrial implementation.