Comparative evaluation of silymarin nanoemulsions stabilized by grape seed and sacha inchi oils: physicochemical stability and enhanced biological activities

Characterization of soy lecithin/tween 80 synergistically stabilized cumin essential oil nanoemulsions and their application in air-dried camel meat processing

The objective of this study was to develop a nanoemulsion of cumin essential oil (CEO-NE) stabilized synergistically by soybean lecithin (SL) and Tween 80 (TW 80), and to investigate the effects of different cumin essential oil (CEO) concentrations (1%–5%) on its physicochemical properties, antioxidant, and antibacterial activities, with a view to further evaluating its potential for preserving sun-dried camel meat. The results showed that when the SL to TW 80 ratio was 1:1, the prepared CEO-NE exhibited the smallest particle size (119.33 ± 2.52 nm) and the highest absolute zeta potential (−56.72 ± 1.23 mV). Through hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions, CEO-NE at various concentrations formed stable nanoemulsion systems, with significantly improved thermal stability. Among these, 3% CEO-NE exhibited the best encapsulation efficiency and the most uniform particle distribution. The results of the antioxidant and antibacterial activity assessments showed that all CEO-NE samples (1%–5%) exhibited concentration-dependent antioxidant and antibacterial effects. The DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging rates increased from 60.24% to 97.09% and from 58.99% to 81.52%, respectively, while the total colony counts of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus decreased by 1.1 log CFU/mL and 1.32 log CFU/mL, respectively. Furthermore, the activity of CEO-NE at all concentrations was significantly superior to that of free CEO (P < 0.05). Experiments applying CEO-NE to the preservation of air-dried camel meat indicated that, during the 12-day drying process, the CEO-NE-treated group effectively maintained meat moisture content, significantly reduced thiobarbituric acid reactant values (0.46 ± 0.07 mg/kg) and total microbial counts (4.03 ± 0.14 log CFU/g), and improved sensory quality.

Preparation and physicochemical characterization of chitosan–sodium tripolyphosphate nanoparticles encapsulating methanol Rosmarinus officinalis extract for controlled bioactive delivery

Rosmarinus officinalis exhibits significant antioxidant activity, though its poor bioavailability limits its practical use. In this study, R. officinalis was extracted with methanol and encapsulated in chitosan–sodium tripolyphosphate nanoparticles (RCSN) at ratios of 1:0, 1:1, 1:2, and 1:3 (RCSN1–RCSN4) to improve efficacy. Thus, the nanoencapsulated extracts were characterized and evaluated for encapsulation efficiency (EE%), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR), particle-size analysis, in vitro bioactive extract release, and in vivo tests. Flavonoids and phenolics were the highest phytoconstituents. EE (%) ranged from 51% to 85%. FTIR spectrum and DSC depicted functional group consistency and decreased crystallinity, respectively. The particle size distribution indicates particle homogeneity and uniformity, with a polydispersity index of 0.434. The in vitro study demonstrated a controlled-release profile, with the highest release of 60% (RCSN2). The in vivo study of the RCSN showed higher antioxidant activity (10.814 IU/L) compared with the other extracts. The RCSN formulation exhibited sustained release and promising antioxidant potential.

Chitosan–cinnamaldehyde–whey protein concentrate stabilized W1/O/W2 double emulsion for co-encapsulation of tea polyphenols and β-carotene

Stabilization of Red Palm Oil Nanoemulsions with Cellulose Nanofibers Derived from Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunches

Quality by Design-Based Optimization of Silymarin–Pioglitazone Nanoemulsion for Enhanced Topical Delivery

The primary objective of the present study was to develop and optimize a nanoemulsion formulation of silymarin and pioglitazone for enhanced topical delivery of antidiabetic effect using Quality by Design (QbD) approach. Both drugs exhibited poor aqueous solubility and low bioavailability in water and also had low bioavailability, which required the advanced development of a nanocarrier system that could enhance drug permeation and therapeutic efficacy. Organoleptic evaluation, solubility analysis, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) were conducted as preformulation studies to evaluate the physical properties and compatibility of the drug. Capryol 90 was optimized as the oil phase, and Tween 80 and Transcutol P as the surfactant and co-surfactant, respectively. The pseudo-ternary phase diagrams were prepared with various Smix ratios to determine the nanoemulsion region and 2:1 Smix ratio showed the best formulation of nanoemulsion. Central Composite Design (CCD) based QbD approach was used to optimize formulation variables and oil concentration, Smix concentration were selected as the independent variables and particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), and drug loading were selected as dependent response. Optimized nanoemulsion had nanosized globules, narrow size distribution and high drug loading efficiency. Developed models were found to be appropriate and significant through statistical analysis. Further, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) studies showed spherical and uniform nano-sized droplets. The optimized formulation demonstrated excellent physicochemical stability in terms of physicochemical stability and as formulation characteristics for topical application. In conclusion, the developed nanoemulsion system of silymarin and pioglitazone showed great potential to be an advanced nanocarrier system for more efficient topical antidiabetic treatment.

Eco-friendly formulations of essential oil-based silica nanocarriers as antibacterial agents

The industrial application of essential oils (EOs) is hindered by their high volatility, instability and poor solubility. Encapsulation represents an effective strategy to overcome these limitations by enhancing protection, enabling controlled release, and improving functional properties. In this study, we developed an aqueous-based sol–gel synthesis, combined with the interfacial oil miniemulsion method, to encapsulate blends of lavender (LO), thyme (TO), and cinnamon (CO) essential oils within silica nanocarriers, in order to hinder EOs volatility and instability, as well as control their release. It was also investigated whether combining LO with other essential oils (TO and CO) could provide complementary or synergistic effects. The process was conducted predominantly in water, using TEOS as silica precursor and a non-ionic surfactant under controlled conditions, aiming to reduce solvent consumption and process-related hazards in line with Safe and Sustainable by Design approach. Physicochemical characterization (SEM, FTIR, TGA, DLS, HPLC) confirmed the formation of spherical silica nanocarriers with diameters of 55–85 nm, narrow size distributions (PdI < 0.15), and encapsulation efficiencies of 93%–94%, corresponding to loading capacities of 52 wt. %. Release studies showed a sustained behavior, with release limited to 15%–26% over 48–168 h, depending on the formulation, and kinetic modelling indicated predominantly diffusion-controlled release. Antibacterial assays against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus showed that encapsulated EO blends preserved their antibacterial activity. SiO 2 nanocarriers loaded with LO showed MIC values to 25% for E. coli and 3.125% for S. aureus . Notably, the oil blends improved LO performance also within the encapsulated system, with MIC values of 6.25% and 0.78% (for LO and CO), and 6.25% and 1.56% (for LO and TO) against E. coli and S. aureus , respectively. Overall, this study demonstrates the feasibility of integrating aqueous sol–gel processing with interfacial miniemulsion to fabricate silica nanocarriers for essential oil delivery, achieving enhanced stability, controlled release behaviour, and preserved antibacterial performance, with promising implications for sustainable formulations.