Nanotheragnosis: an emerging frontier review in personalized cancer medicine

Abstract

Cancer remains a major cause of global mortality, while late-stage diagnosis and therapeutic resistance highlight the need for individualized strategies. Nanotheranostics has emerged as a promising paradigm by integrating cancer diagnosis and treatment within multifunctional nanosystems. However, most current approaches remain technology-driven rather than truly patient-specific. This review examines the emerging convergence of adaptive nanotechnology, artificial intelligence (AI), molecular profiling, and precision medicine to develop intelligent nanoplatforms capable of responding to individual biological characteristics. Based on a literature search of PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science (January 2010–June 2026), we review nano-enabled diagnostic approaches, including SERS-based nanoprobes and circulating tumor DNA detection, therapeutic strategies such as stimuli-responsive drug delivery, CRISPR-Cas9 nanodelivery, and personalized nanovaccines, and integrated multimodal imaging-guided theranostic systems. We further evaluate clinical trials and translational studies, highlighting biological, manufacturing, regulatory, and ethical barriers to clinical implementation. Although generalized nanoparticle platforms have reached Phase II/III trials and some have received regulatory approval, truly patient-specific nanotheranostic systems remain largely at early clinical stages. AI may bridge patient molecular profiles and nanoplatform design by optimizing nanoparticle properties, predicting biological interactions, and enabling personalized treatment selection. This review provides a roadmap toward adaptive, intelligent, and patient-specific cancer nanotheranostics, supporting a paradigm shift from generalized treatment toward precision-guided personalized healthcare. Cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide, and many people are still diagnosed when the disease is advanced or difficult to treat. Researchers are developing new technologies that may help doctors detect cancer earlier and treat it more effectively. One promising approach uses extremely small particles, called nanoparticles, which are thousands of times smaller than the width of a human hair. These particles can travel through the body, find cancer cells, help make tumors easier to see on medical scans, and deliver medicines directly to the tumor while reducing damage to healthy tissues. This review explains how nanotechnology could support more personalized cancer care. Instead of giving the same treatment to every patient, future therapies may be designed to match the unique characteristics of each person’s cancer. The review also describes how artificial intelligence may help scientists design smarter nanoparticles and improve treatment decisions using information from medical images, blood tests, and a patient’s genetic profile. In addition, the article summarizes recent advances in targeted drug delivery, cancer imaging, gene-editing technologies, personalized cancer vaccines, and combined diagnosis-and-treatment systems. It also discusses the main challenges that must be overcome before these technologies become part of routine healthcare, including large-scale manufacturing, safety, regulatory approval, and equal access for patients worldwide. Overall, this review highlights how nanotechnology could contribute to safer, more effective, and more personalized cancer treatment in the future.