Monocular ORB-SLAM3 Evaluation for Multi-Altitude VTOL UAV Mapping

Abstract

Abstract. Reliable visual localization is essential for long-range VTOL UAV mapping in GNSS-degraded environments. This paper presents a quantitative evaluation framework for monocular ORB-SLAM3 using a 66.48 km multi-altitude UAV mission and aerial-triangulation-derived camera poses as reference data. The workflow associates SLAM and reference trajectories by image key, applies Sim(3)-based metric alignment, corrects coordinate-axis inconsistency, and refines attitude by a global rotation offset, enabling full-mission and segment-level comparison in a common metric frame. The evaluation covers four altitude segments, namely 100, 150, 200, and 250 m AGL, under three protocols: No-Loop (NL), With-Loop Global Slice (GS), and With-Loop Local Re-Sim(3) (LR). For the full mission, the proposed alignment achieves a 3D position RMSE of 7.41 m over 5330 matched frames and substantially reduces the geometric deformation observed in the S+T baseline. Segment-level results show a strong altitude dependency in the isolated NL runs, with 3D RMSE decreasing from 22.95 m at 100 m to 5.49 m at 250 m. Among the three protocols, LR consistently yields the best segment-level position accuracy, reaching 4.00, 8.26, 3.94, and 3.92 m at 100, 150, 200, and 250 m, respectively. Long-range analysis further shows that the trajectory remains globally bounded, while cumulative 3D endpoint drift increases from 0.35 m at 50 m to 10.66 m at 25.6 km. These results indicate that ORB-SLAM3 can support large-scale trajectory estimation for UAV mapping, but its evaluated quality depends strongly on alignment, segmentation, and evaluation strategy.