OOD Detection for EEG-based Machine Learning in High-Risk Environments
Philipp BomatterHenry Gouk
Aug 2026
Machine Learning
Abstract
Machine learning models for electroencephalography (EEG) analysis show great promise across a wide range of applications, but their deployment in high-risk domains is hindered by their vulnerability to distribution shifts. Encountering out-of-distribution (OOD) data can lead to catastrophic, overconfident predictive failures. While OOD detection methods can mitigate these risks, they remain heavily under-explored for EEG. Moreover, evaluations in the broader literature typically evaluate OOD detection performance in isolation, ignoring their practical impact on downstream applications. To bridge this gap, we introduce a benchmark for EEG OOD detection, evaluate a broad range of methods, and furthermore evaluate their value in two clinical downstream prediction task. Our results disentangle OOD detection and model uncertainty estimation capabilities, which are frequently conflated in the literature, provide actionable insights about the current state of the art for EEG OOD detection and model uncertainty estimation, and demonstrate how complementary methods for both aspects can be combined to form a robust safety net for the deployment of EEG-based machine learning models in real-world applications.
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It is shown that the maximum hypergraph density of any multiclass hypothesis class is upper-bounded by its DS dimension, which proves a longstanding conjecture of Daniely and Shalev-Shwartz (2014) and determines the optimal dependence of the sample complexity on the DS dimension for multiclass as well as list learning.
Quantum measurements are the means by which we recover messages encoded into quantum states. They are at the forefront of quantum hypothesis testing, wherein the goal is to perform an optimal measurement for arriving at a correct conclusion. Mathematically, a measurement operator is Hermitian with eigenvalues in [0,1]. By noticing that this constraint on each eigenvalue is the same as that imposed on fermions by the Pauli exclusion principle, we interpret every eigenmode of a measurement operator as an independent effective fermionic mode. Under this perspective, various objective functions in quantum hypothesis testing can be viewed as the total expected energy associated with these fermionic occupation numbers. By instead fixing a temperature and minimizing the total expected fermionic free energy, we find that optimal measurements for these modified objective functions are Fermi-Dirac thermal measurements, wherein their eigenvalues are specified by Fermi-Dirac distributions. In the low-temperature limit, their performance closely approximates that of optimal measurements for quantum hypothesis testing, and we show that their parameters can be learned by classical or hybrid quantum-classical optimization algorithms. This leads to a new quantum machine-learning model, termed Fermi-Dirac machines, consisting of parameterized Fermi-Dirac thermal measurements-an alternative to quantum Boltzmann machines based on thermal states. Beyond hypothesis testing, we show how general semidefinite optimization problems can be solved using this approach, leading to a novel paradigm for semidefinite optimization on quantum computers, in which the goal is to implement thermal measurements rather than prepare thermal states. Finally, we propose quantum algorithms for implementing Fermi-Dirac thermal measurements, and we also propose second-order hybrid quantum-classical optimization algorithms.
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