The Autonomy Paradox in Highly Digital Higher Education: Examining How Mobile Empowerment Affects Psychological Distress in Chinese College Students

Abstract

The excessive use of artificial intelligence (AI) and mobile learning apps in Chinese universities has changed how students experience their studies and has led to higher levels of psychological distress. Using Self-Determination Theory, this study examines how various aspects of mobile empowerment relate to psychological distress. This study used a quantitative, non-experimental design. Researchers collected data through an online survey from 472 undergraduate and postgraduate students at four universities in Fujian Province, China. The data were analyzed with multiple linear regression and structural equation modelling (SEM) using AMOS. The results show that Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) indicated a strong model fit and good construct validity. The RMSEA values were 0.023 for the independent-variable model and 0.011 for the dependent-variable model. The SEM results showed that digital competence significantly lowered generalised anxiety (B = −0.435, p < .001) and psychological stress (B = −0.401, p < .001). Digital relatedness also predicted lower anxiety (B = −0.306, p < .001) and stress (B = −0.228, p < .001). These findings suggest that digital competence and supportive peer connections are important protective factors against psychological distress. However, digital autonomy by itself may not reduce stress in highly connected, AI-driven learning environments.