Aug 2026· Nutrients· Vol 18, pp. 2826· 0 citations· 131 references
Medicine
TL;DR
The evidence indicates that peptide discovery should not be treated as the principal endpoint of research, and future progress will require translation-oriented development in which bioactivity, digestion stability, matrix compatibility, sensory quality, manufacturing reproducibility, realistic intake, human evidence, and regulatory credibility are evaluated as interdependent criteria.
Abstract
Plant protein-derived bioactive peptides have attracted increasing interest as potential ingredients for health-promoting functional foods because of their reported cardiometabolic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, gastrointestinal, and satiety-related activities. However, the field remains dominated by peptide discovery, in silico prediction, enzyme-inhibition assays, simulated digestion, and preclinical models, whereas successful translation into clinically supported and technologically viable food products is still limited. This review critically examines the gap between mechanistic promise and functional food implementation. It integrates evidence on plant protein sources, peptide-generation strategies, structure–activity relationships, gastrointestinal stability, intestinal transport, local gut activity, food-matrix interactions, processing effects, encapsulation, sensory constraints, human efficacy, regulatory substantiation, commercial feasibility, and consumer acceptance. Particular attention is given to the limited predictive value of isolated in vitro activity when peptides are exposed to digestion, epithelial barriers, complex food matrices, realistic processing conditions, and achievable dietary doses. The review also highlights that systemic absorption is not the only relevant pathway, as selected peptides may act locally within the gastrointestinal tract. Overall, the evidence indicates that peptide discovery should not be treated as the principal endpoint of research. Future progress will require translation-oriented development in which bioactivity, digestion stability, matrix compatibility, sensory quality, manufacturing reproducibility, realistic intake, human evidence, and regulatory credibility are evaluated as interdependent criteria. The most promising plant-derived peptides will therefore be those that retain sufficient activity and acceptability under real conditions of food production and consumption.
Animal-processing by-products contain collagen, myofibrillar proteins, blood proteins, whey proteins, and egg proteins that can be converted into peptide-rich food ingredients. Within a single application-oriented framework, this review integrates source heterogeneity, process control, peptide-profile characterization, tiered functional evidence, food-matrix performance, and regulatory substantiation. Evidence is evaluated for antioxidant, ACE-inhibitory, antimicrobial, DPP-IV-inhibitory, anti-inflammatory, mineral-binding, and taste-modulating functions, while distinguishing chemical assays, cell models, animal studies, human interventions, and tests in real-food matrices. Potential applications include functional foods, dietary supplements, natural preservation, flavor systems, texture modification, active packaging, and oral delivery. Translation remains limited by raw-material heterogeneity, batch variability, sensory defects, processing and gastrointestinal instability, uncertain bioavailability, incomplete safety assessment, and poorly defined regulatory claims. Future work should prioritize source traceability, peptide fingerprints, food-matrix validation, human exposure data, and scalable food-grade production. Compositionally defined peptide mixtures with reproducible functionality may be more practical than single highly purified sequences.
Ying-Yan Liang, Bo-Yu Cai, Li Chen et al.· Foods· 0 citations
As a sustainable plant protein resource, wheat germ protein (WGP) has attracted increasing attention because of its high digestibility, balanced essential amino acid profile, and broad potential in functional food development. However, its industrial application remains limited by processing bottlenecks and an incomplete understanding of its structure-function relationships and molecular mechanisms of action. This review systematically summarizes the structural characteristics, digestion behavior, and functional properties of WGP, and further evaluates its incorporation into diverse food matrices, particularly bakery products, meat analogues, and other functional formulations. In addition, current evidence on the physiological activities of WGP and its derived bioactive peptides is critically examined, with emphasis on antioxidant, antihypertensive, immunomodulatory, neuroprotective, and metabolic regulatory effects, together with the signaling pathways involved. Available studies indicate that WGP-derived peptides exert health-promoting effects not only through activation of key pathways such as Nrf2 and AMPK, but also through modulation of systemic homeostasis via the gut-brain and gut-liver axes. Overall, this review highlights the need to move beyond conventional nutritional fortification toward a mechanism-oriented design strategy, and provides a theoretical basis for the development of next-generation functional foods and specialized medical nutrition products based on WGP.
Long Pan, Jing Cai, Ai-Mei Liao et al.· Critical reviews in food sci...· 0 citations
Key challenges remain, particularly digestive instability, uncertain systemic bioavailability, bitterness, safety standardization, and limited human clinical evidence, so future work should prioritize standardized extraction and analytical methods, optimized delivery systems, and robust clinical trials.
G. Kowalska, Gabriela Rzepkowska, Karolina Miśkiewicz et al.· Molecules· 1 citation
Functional meals are emerging, encompassing complete meal systems designed to deliver physiological benefits through food synergy, interactions with the food matrix, and optimized release of bioactive compounds. This narrative review examines the role of bioactive compounds in functional meals, with particular emphasis on bioavailability, food matrix effects, technological approaches, and health implications. Bioactive compounds can contribute to cardiometabolic, anti-inflammatory, gastrointestinal, and neuroprotective effects. However, their biological efficacy depends not only on their concentration in foods but also on their release from the food matrix, stability during processing and digestion, intestinal absorption, microbiota-mediated transformation, and post-absorptive metabolism. Therefore, functional meals represent complex systems in which food structure, culinary preparation, processing intensity, co-ingested nutrients, and host-related factors determine the final physiological response. Emerging technologies, including microencapsulation and nanoencapsulation, offer promising strategies to improve the stability, bioaccessibility, targeted release, and sensory acceptability of bioactives. Future research should prioritize well-designed human studies, standardized methodologies, clinically relevant outcomes, personalized nutritional approaches, and sustainable food system integration to support the development of effective, evidence-based functional meal strategies.
T. Silva-Santos, C. Morais, Fernanda Cosme et al.· Applied Sciences· 1 citation
Bioactive peptides generated during probiotic fermentation have emerged as a complex class of food-derived molecules with multifaceted physiological effects relevant to cardiometabolic health. Recent advances in peptidomics, structural analysis, and mechanistic evaluation have revealed that fermentation with lactic acid bacteria, Bacillus species, or mixed cultures produces highly diverse peptide profiles whose activities depend on sequence motifs, hydrophobicity, charge distribution, and resistance to gastrointestinal degradation. These peptides modulate key pathways involved in vascular regulation, glucose metabolism, lipid handling, and inflammatory signaling. Evidence from cellular and animal models consistently demonstrates that selected short sequences inhibit angiotensin converting enzyme, enhance incretin bioactivity through dipeptidyl peptidase IV inhibition, reduce oxidative stress via direct radical scavenging and Nrf2 activation, attenuate inflammatory cascades by neutralizing endotoxin or interfering with immune receptor interactions, and influence lipid metabolism by interacting with bile acids or receptor-regulated transcription factors. Human trials, although heterogeneous in design and outcomes, suggest modest improvements in blood pressure, glucose tolerance, and lipid measures in specific populations, with notable geographical and genetic variability. Controversy remains regarding effect size, reproducibility, and translation of in vitro potency to physiological relevance due to variability in peptide abundance, digestion stability, and differences in habitual diet. Despite such limitations, emerging strategies in controlled fermentation, peptide enrichment, in silico prediction, and combined functional formulations indicate strong potential for targeted development of peptide-rich foods that support cardiometabolic resilience. Continued integration of structural analysis, mechanistic validation, and rigorously designed clinical studies will be essential to clarify their role within food-based preventive strategies.
This review provides a comprehensive evaluation of how bioactive compounds within plant- and animal-derived food matrices interact with human physiology and metabolic pathways, with a particular focus on secondary metabolites synthesized or transformed via microbial pathways. The manuscript covers a diverse range of lipophilic and hydrophilic bioactive molecules, critically analysing these components from biological and technological perspectives. From a processing perspective, the mechanisms by which fermentation enhances antioxidant capacity by converting complex molecular structures into highly active aglycone forms are detailed. Concurrently, from an engineering perspective, the efficiency of nanoliposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNP), and biopolymeric carrier systems is assessed. Rather than claiming that encapsulation technologies can entirely overcome bioavailability limitations, this review critically assesses their potential to improve the stability, bioaccessibility and targeted release of sensitive components during gastrointestinal transit. Ultimately, by bridging microbial biotransformation with advanced delivery systems, this study offers a unified framework for optimizing the bioaccessibility of complex dietary compounds under simulated gastrointestinal conditions.
M. E. Ibrahim, Utku Benan Usta, Seydi Yıkmış et al.· Frontiers in Nutrition· 0 citations
We use cookies to run the site and, with your consent, for analytics and to show ads.
See our Cookie Policy.
