Urban Green Spaces and Mental Health: Restorative Effects Beyond Usage Patterns

Abstract

Abstract   Urban green spaces are increasingly recognized as important environmental determinants of mental health. However, the mechanisms linking green space use to mental health remain unclear, particularly whether usage patterns or subjective experiences such as perceived environmental qualities and restorative effects play a more important role. Data was obtained from our 2024 household survey (n = 2,157) in two German cities. A cluster analysis identified user groups based on activities and motivations for visiting green spaces. Mediation analysis assessed whether perceived environmental qualities (greenspace quality, biodiversity, noise quality) and restorative experiences (adapted Restoration Outcome Scale) influence associations between user groups and mental health outcomes, including well-being (WHO-5), perceived stress (PSS-10), and depressive symptoms (PHQ-9). Five distinct user groups were identified. Restorative experiences emerged as the strongest and most consistent mediator across all models. Higher restorative experiences were strongly associated with increased well-being (β ≈ 1.90–2.03, p < .001), as well as reduced perceived stress (β ≈ −1.17 to − 1.23, p < .001) and depressive symptoms (β ≈ −0.86 to − 0.95, p < .001). Significant indirect effects supported the mediating role of restoration (ACME up to β ≈ 0.36, p < .001). Biodiversity showed smaller but significant indirect effects on well-being (β ≈ 0.10–0.12, p < .01), while greenspace quality effects were weaker. Noise quality was consistently associated with perceived stress (β ≈ −1.04, p < .001). The results indicate that mental health benefits of urban green spaces appear to be driven primarily by subjective experiences within the environment rather than by usage patterns alone. Enhancing restorative experiences may therefore be more effective than focusing solely on promoting specific activities, highlighting key targets for public health interventions. Key messages • Mental health benefits of urban green spaces are driven more by restorative experiences than by activities, highlighting perception and design as key targets for public health. • Improving the perceived quality and restorative potential of green spaces may be more effective for mental health than simply increasing access or promoting use.