Traditional and modern education systems in Ayurveda education: a critical integrative review

Abstract

The evolution of Āyurveda education reflects a shift from an ancient, philosophically grounded educational model to a contemporary, institutionalized, competency-based one. Historically, Āyurveda was transmitted through the Gurukul system, a personalized, residential pedagogical model combining textual study with hands-on clinical training, emphasizing moral discipline ( Dharma ) and the Guru-Śiṣya Paramparā (teacher-disciple lineage). Learning was structured around the Trividha Jñānopāya (three-fold means of knowledge) and the cognitive sequence of Śravaṇa (listening), Manana (reflection), and Nididhyāsana (internalization). Colonial administrative frameworks and subsequent modernization transitioned Āyurveda education into a structured, time-bound, standardized university system. Today, under the governance of the National Commission for Indian System of Medicine (NCISM) and guided by the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, Āyurveda education employs Competency-Based Medical Education (CBME), integrating digital technologies, Simulation-Based Learning (SBL), and objective assessment tools such as the Objective Structured Clinical Examination (OSCE). This modernization has increased scalability, standardization, and interdisciplinary integration, but has also introduced challenges including faculty shortages, infrastructural constraints, and epistemological tension between traditional and biomedical frameworks. This integrative review critically examines the historical trajectory, pedagogical shifts, and comparative methodologies of traditional and modern Āyurveda education, giving balanced weight to the strengths and limitations of each system. It further examines the current landscape of technological integration, including Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Virtual Reality (VR) in anatomical and clinical training, with attention to validation, cost, and governance barriers, and identifies systemic barriers to reform. Finally, the review proposes policy, curricular, and research-oriented recommendations toward a critically synthesized model of Āyurveda education.