MXene-bioinspired nanomaterials for biosensing of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in complex aquatic systems at ultra-trace levels

Abstract

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) are an increasing class of environmental pollutants of concern in aquatic ecosystems owing to their persistence and biological activity at low concentrations. Correct and selective monitoring of these substances is necessary to assess their ecological impacts and preserve water quality. The high conductivity, large surface area and tunable surface chemistry of two-dimensional transition metal carbides and nitrides (MXenes) have recently opened new avenues for electrochemical sensing. In this study we explain the state of the art of MXene nanoparticles, their characteristics, production and functionalization procedures that allow the integration of these materials in electrochemical and bioinspired sensing systems. Design advances such as biomimetic recognition elements, molecular imprinting, enzymes and nanocomposites are critically reviewed in terms of their contribution towards improving selectivity and operational stability of sensors. This study examines the analytical performance of MXene-based sensors for the ultra-trace detection of PPCPs in complex aquatic matrices, focusing on advances in sensitivity, antifouling strategies, and multiplexed detection. It also discusses future perspectives such as smart sensor networks and AI-driven data analytics, as well as issues in material scalability, sensor durability and real-world deployment. This study opens the door for the new potential of MXene-enabled platforms for the development of environmental analytical chemistry and shows the future research pathways towards sustainable and effective aquatic pollution monitoring.