Advancing Modular Construction with 3D‐Printed Steel Connections: Sustainable High‐Performance Inter‐Module Joints
Abstract
Modular construction is increasingly being combined with advanced Additive Manufacturing to improve efficiency, sustainability, and overall structural performance. In conventional steel modular buildings, inter‐module connections are mainly formed using bolted or welded joints, which often suffer from fabrication tolerances, labour‐intensive assembly, limited adaptability, and poor seismic energy dissipation. Additive Manufacturing provides a promising alternative, as 3D printed steel connections can be produced with customized and optimized geometries that improve force transfer, enhance energy absorption, and reduce material usage. This review examines the potential of 3D printed steel connectors for modular construction, focusing on Powder Bed Fusion and Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing. The paper first outlines the evolution of inter‐module connection systems and highlights key limitations associated with current bolted and welded joints. It then assesses the mechanical performance of 3D printed connectors, including strength, stiffness, ductility, fatigue behavior, and cyclic loading response. Reported studies show that optimized 3D printed steel nodes can achieve up to 35 to 75% weight reduction while maintaining or improving load‐carrying capacity and deformation performance. In addition, environmental assessments indicate up to 90% reduction in material waste and notable reductions in carbon emissions when Additive Manufacturing is combined with design optimization. Challenges relating to print‐induced anisotropy, size limitations, production cost, and the absence of design standards are discussed, along with opportunities for hybrid printed and conventional systems. By consolidating recent advancements and identifying future research needs, this review provides a foundation to support the development of lighter, resilient, and more environmentally sustainable modular steel structures through Additive Manufacturing.