Individualization in strength and conditioning training at physical and psychosocial levels in elite and professional sports: A scoping review
TL;DR
Overall, individualization of S&C practice is widely valued yet inconsistently applied and is rarely the primary object of study, while psychosocial individualization was acknowledged but underdeveloped.
Abstract
High-performance sport has experienced rising competitive intensity and growing injury rates, leading athletes to seek individualized support. Yet evidence on how strength and conditioning coaches (SCC) individualize their practice remains scarce. This scoping review aimed to identify and map what is known about the individualized strength and conditioning (S&C) practices of coaches working with elite and professional athletes across sports. Conducted according to the Joanna Briggs Institute methodology and reported following the PRISMA extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR), four databases (PubMed, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus and Scopus) were searched for English language records, with eligibility based on a Population, Concept and Context framework (SCC and physical trainers; individualized physical preparation practices; elite and professional sport). Of 9456 records, 18 studies met the inclusion criteria, spanning individual sports and team and multisport contexts. Four themes emerged: programming and load individualization; assessment, testing and technology; psychosocial individualization; and future perspectives and trends. Coaches broadly valued individualization, but its full implementation was constrained, depending on high athlete and coach ratios in team settings, with assessment and technology (physical testing, GPS, RPE and readiness monitoring) the most frequently reported aspects, though this reflects how often they are studied rather than demonstrated effectiveness. Psychosocial individualization was acknowledged but underdeveloped. Overall, individualization of S&C practice is widely valued yet inconsistently applied and is rarely the primary object of study. The available evidence remains scarce and provides a starting point for future research that first builds foundational knowledge of individualized practices before examining their possible impact on training outcomes. The protocol was registered in Open Science Framework (10.17605/OSF.IO/J34SG) and in INPLASY (10.37766/inplasy2025.2.0001).