Synthesis and characterization methods: Biomaterials

Abstract

Biomaterials play a pivotal role in modern medicine and are widely used in fields such as orthopaedics, dentistry, cardiovascular medicine, and tissue engineering. Their clinical performance is determined by far more than the intrinsic properties of the materials themselves. The fabrication strategy and the extent of physicochemical, mechanical, and biological characterization are equally important in determining long-term functionality and biocompatibility. This review provides a concise overview of the major classes of biomaterials—namely, metals, ceramics, polymers, composites, and natural materials—along with their characteristic properties and representative biomedical applications. Particular attention is given to the principal fabrication routes, including conventional processing, wet-chemical methods, polymerization, electrospinning, freeze-drying, and additive manufacturing, with an emphasis on how each approach influences material architecture, surface properties, and biological behaviour. The review also examines the characterization techniques most commonly used to evaluate biomaterials, encompassing structural, morphological, surface, thermal, mechanical, and biological analyses. Current evidence indicates that no single fabrication or characterization technique can meet the diverse requirements of all biomaterial systems. Meaningful evaluation therefore requires the integration of appropriate fabrication routes with complementary analytical methods to establish robust relationships among processing conditions, material structure, and functional performance. Overall, the available evidence demonstrates that combining optimized fabrication strategies with comprehensive characterization protocols provides a foundation for developing reliable, application-specific biomaterials capable of meeting the evolving demands of regenerative medicine and biomedical engineering.