Serological exposure and associated factors for Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum, and Leishmania spp. in subsistence-farmed goats from northeastern Brazil

Abstract

Abstract This study aimed to estimate the seroprevalence, describe the spatial distribution, and identify factors associated with exposure to Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum, and Leishmania spp. in goats raised on subsistence-based family farming systems in Alagoas State, north-eastern Brazil. A total of 388 serum samples were collected from goats belonging to 17 sub-sistence-based family farming systems located in 11 municipalities. IgG antibodies against the three protozoa were detected using indirect immunofluorescence antibody testing (IFAT). Epidemiological data on animal characteristics and farm management practices were ob-tained through structured questionnaires. Seroprevalence was 7.7 % for T. gondii (30/388), 5.6 % for N. caninum (22/388), and 2.5 % for Leishmania spp. (10/388). No goat was seroposi-tive for all three pathogens. Risk factor analysis was performed using generalized linear mixed models (GLMM). For T. gondii, the presence of rodents on the property was inde-pendently associated with seropositivity (OR = 3.40; p = 0.019). No management- or envi-ronment-related variables remained significantly associated with seropositivity to N. caninum or Leishmania spp. Spatial analysis was descriptive, revealing regional concentrations of se-ropositive farms. Overall, these findings indicate the silent circulation of protozoan pathogens among goats raised under low-resource conditions and underscore the importance of inte-grated epidemiological surveillance to support targeted prevention strategies.