Aug 2026· Italian National Conference on Sensors· Vol 26· 0 citations· 30 references
Medicine
TL;DR
RSrSF-LoRa is proposed, an integrated implementation of the reserved spreading factor (rSF) mechanism within the RS-LoRa framework (lightweight scheduling), designed to improve reliability for critical traffic in smelter IIoT deployments.
Abstract
Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) systems are increasingly deployed in heavy industrial facilities to support real-time monitoring, automation, and safety-critical operations. Long-range low-power communication technologies such as LoRaWAN are widely used for large-scale sensor connectivity due to their long communication range and energy efficiency. However, dense industrial deployments may experience reduced communication reliability due to network congestion, packet collisions, and challenging propagation conditions caused by metallic infrastructure and electromagnetic interference. To address these limitations, this paper proposes RSrSF-LoRa, an integrated implementation of the reserved spreading factor (rSF) mechanism within the RS-LoRa framework (lightweight scheduling), designed to improve reliability for critical traffic. The study presents a comparative performance evaluation of RSrSF-LoRa and LoRaWAN in a smelter IIoT deployment, assessing packet delivery ratio (PDR), throughput, fairness, energy consumption and scalability under varying node densities and gateway configurations. Single-gateway scenarios with 100, 500, and 1000 nodes, and seven-gateway scenarios with 1000 and 2100 nodes, are evaluated as communication distances increase. The results indicate that while throughput and fairness remain comparable across approaches, RSrSF-LoRa improves alarm message reliability in dense single-gateway deployments, extending the acceptable PDR from 700 m to 900 m. Alarm nodes in RSrSF-LoRa consume slightly more energy due to reserved transmission, but overall energy consumption remains comparable. These findings provide design insights for reliable and energy-aware industrial IoT networks in smelter environments.
LoRa-LQE, a link quality estimation scheme specifically designed for mobile environments, outperforms state-of-the-art solutions and achieves packet delivery ratio improvements and energy efficiency improvements, thereby enabling more reliable communication for mobile IoT assets.
Geraldo A. Sarmento, Thiago A. Ribeiro Da Silva, Fernando J. V. Santos et al.· Journal of Internet Services...· 0 citations
A reproducible pre-deployment analytics framework for physical/MAC-layer assessment of RF900, G3-PLC, GPRS CS2–CS3, hybrid PLC–GPRS, and renewable-event communication profiles is presented.
A. Villarroel, Milton Ruiz· Electronics· 0 citations
Traditional IoT technologies such as LoRaWAN, Sigfox, and NB-IoT rely on single-hop star topologies, requiring many gateways to cover large areas. In subterranean environments where cellular coverage and grid power may be unavailable, such deployments are often impractical. This paper presents a novel LoRa mesh network designed for such environments, capable of operating for years on battery power. While the recent LoRaWAN relay specification supports two-hop communication via an intermediate relay between an end device and a gateway, our work is the first to extend this specification for on-demand multi-hop communication across multiple LoRa repeaters, adapting its sleep mechanism. Our proposed sleep mechanism combines an on-demand cascaded repeater wakeup process with a repeater synchronization strategy, minimizing the power consumption. Moreover, our network architecture integrates existing packet routing and collision recovery mechanisms and is highly scalable and general-purpose, enabling a wide range of applications. Network simulations demonstrate that the proposed design operates reliably, sustaining years on battery power, while the repeater synchronization strategy further reduces average energy consumption by up to 50%. [Code: https://bit.ly/4nALuNX]
Nalith Udugampola, Xiaoyu Ai, Binghao Li et al.· International Conference on...· 0 citations
Low-Power Wide-Area Network (LPWAN) technologies have been used to form the basis of large-scale Internet of Things (IoT) deployments requiring long-range coverage, low power usage, and affordability. The paper is a detailed comparative analysis of three popular technologies of the LPWAN: LoRaWAN, Sigfox, and Narrowband IoT (NB-IoT). Their architecture, protocol stack and their underlying structures, communication and performance properties, security and scalability, deployment model and cost structures are analyzed. Technical differences are converted into practical deployment knowledge using a detailed application suitability evaluation and a case study based on how to apply smart water metering in a scenario. The findings indicate that LoRaWAN is a good fit in flexible and low-cost private deployments, Sigfox offers ultra-low data rate and simple alerting applications, and NB-IoT offers carrier-grade reliability and security to large-scale and mission-critical deployment. The paper emphasizes that the choice of an LPWAN technology has to be application-based, by focusing on trade-offs between performance, security, scale, and overall cost of ownership instead of considering the individual metrics.
Snehankita Majalekar, T. Wani, Sudheer Kumar et al.· Journal of Intelligent Decis...· 0 citations
Long Range (LoRa) sensors are widely adopted in Internet of Things (IoT) applications due to their combination of long‐range communication and low energy consumption. However, the continuous, large‐scale operation of these devices raises concerns about cumulative energy consumption and environmental impacts over time. Evaluations based solely on prototypes and field tests tend to be costly, time‐consuming, and poorly reproducible, hindering the systematic comparison of multiple operational scenarios. To address these challenges, this work proposes a mechanism for analyzing the energy consumption and environmental impact of LoRa sensors over time, focusing exclusively on the sensor node. The goal is to support sustainable planning of large‐scale LoRa deployments by enabling the temporal evaluation of battery discharge, transmitted packets, and CO emissions under different message generation rates and physical transmission parameters. The mechanism is developed using Stochastic Petri Nets (SPN), which model the alternation between the operating states of a LoRa sensor. Environmental impact is quantified by converting accumulated energy consumption into CO emissions using a global average carbon emission factor. The SPN model is cross‐validated against a discrete‐event simulation implemented in NS‐3. The cross‐validation indicated close agreement between the SPN model and NS‐3, with mean absolute percentage errors below 0.3% across all evaluated metrics. The packet generation rate is shown to govern both sensor lifetime and the temporal distribution of CO emissions, with the per‐packet carbon footprint increasing under low‐traffic scenarios due to the higher share of idle consumption. The Spreading Factor (SF) exhibits a monotonic effect on energy consumption, per‐packet CO, and battery drain, with SF12 emitting approximately 8.55 times more CO per packet than SF7. When projected to networks of thousands of devices, this behavior produces a multiplicative effect on the collective carbon footprint. Ultimately, a multidimensional analysis via a radar chart illustrates the trade‐offs among lifetime, energy efficiency, data throughput, and carbon footprint across the evaluated scenarios. The proposed SPN‐based model effectively characterizes the temporal evolution of energy consumption and environmental impact of LoRa sensors, revealing cumulative dynamics that average metrics or isolated final values would not capture. This transient analysis demonstrates that sustainability assessment in LoRa networks must consider the interactions among active consumption, reception overhead, residual idle drain, and information density throughout the device's operational cycle, providing a reliable basis for early scenario evaluation and energy‐aware planning for large‐scale IoT deployments.
Vandirleya Barbosa, Melissa Alves, I. Almeida et al.· International Journal of Com...· 0 citations
A collision-aware ADR (CA-ADR) technique to handle collisions in dense LoRaWAN deployments is presented, which incorporates a capture-aware model based on signal-to-interference ratio thresholds, enabling a more realistic assessment of packet reception under overlapping transmissions.
S. Amrane, Abdallah Zahidi, Noureddine Ennadi et al.· Engineering Research Express· 0 citations
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