2026· IEEE Open Journal of the Communications Society· Vol 7, pp. 9584-9618· 0 citations· 93 references
TL;DR
A comprehensive survey and quantitative analysis of network architectures for enabling future sixth-generation (6G) services in rural and underserved regions and identifies emerging technologies, including direct-to-device non-terrestrial access, programmable radio environments, and intelligent RAN control that are expected to play a central role in extending sustainable rural 6G connectivity.
Abstract
Bridging the rural digital divide remains a persistent global challenge despite the widespread deployment of 4G and 5G cellular networks. This paper presents a comprehensive survey and quantitative analysis of network architectures for enabling future sixth-generation (6G) services in rural and underserved regions. Drawing on a structured review of peer-reviewed studies, 3GPP and ITU-R standards, O-RAN Alliance specifications, and documented field deployments, we classify and evaluate four architectural categories: terrestrial networks (TNs), non-terrestrial networks (NTNs), hybrid TN–NTN systems, and Open Radio Access Network (O-RAN)-based deployments. Each architecture is assessed against International Mobile Telecommunications for 2030 (IMT-2030) performance targets for throughput, end-to-end round-trip latency, energy efficiency (expressed as energy consumed per bit), coverage, and reliability. Unlike prior surveys that address individual components in isolation, such as satellite backhaul, microwave transport, or O-RAN frameworks, this paper provides a unified, deployment-driven, and quantitatively grounded treatment of all four architectural classes under rural 6G constraints. The survey analyzes key enabling technologies including Integrated Access and Backhaul (IAB), High-Altitude Platform Stations (HAPSs), Low-Earth Orbit (LEO) satellite systems, Reconfigurable Intelligent Surfaces (RIS), and AI-native orchestration frameworks. Analytical models are presented for RIS-assisted link enhancement and AI-native RAN Intelligent Controller (RIC) control utility. A quantitative, normalized key performance indicator (KPI) comparison across cost efficiency, spectral utilization, power consumption, and deployment scalability is grounded in a transparent scoring methodology, extended with a multi-criteria (AHP) architecture ranking, a weight-sensitivity analysis, and a parametric techno-economic cost-per-user comparison, and supported by an extensive review of technical, industrial, and policy literature. Beyond current deployments, this work identifies emerging technologies, including direct-to-device non-terrestrial access, programmable radio environments, and intelligent RAN control, that are expected to play a central role in extending sustainable rural 6G connectivity. A practical deployment decision framework and scenario-driven architectural guidance are provided for researchers, network operators, and policymakers pursuing inclusive, future-ready rural connectivity.
This study focuses on future Non-Terrestrial Networks (NTN) integrated with Terrestrial Networks (TN) for future 5G/6G systems. NTN envisions a 3D architecture, where Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellite networks will play a key role in bridging the digital divide, complementing the gradual terrestrial 5G/6G rollout concentrated in high-density and high-traffic areas, by ensuring service continuity across broad geographic regions and providing coverage in case of emergencies or in remote areas. In this context, we address networking issues for the integration and federation of Terrestrial and Non-Terrestrial Network (T-NTN) in line with the IMT-2030 vision, focusing on interoperability, spectrum coexistence, unified control and management, and service continuity. Federation is a complementary approach to integration that enables distinct satellite systems to cooperate through agreements, potentially unified satellite terminals, and common resource management. We show that system federation significantly enhances both latency performance and connectivity robustness compared with non-federated LEO architectures. This paper also investigates the challenges and possible solutions for adopting the Open-RAN architecture for T-NTN, including routing options for mega-LEO systems, edge intelligence, and energy efficiency as critical elements for sustainability. Finally, we address the security, privacy, and resilience aspects of federated T-NTN architectures with emphasis on zero-trust, secure routing, trustworthy edge intelligence, Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC), and Quantum Key Distribution (QKD).
Sarath Babu, Victor Baños-Gonzalez, Mario Cordina et al.· 0 citations
Network Slicing (NS) is a fundamental pillar of 5G and beyond networks, enabling the provisioning of isolated, logical networks tailored to specific Quality of Service (QoS) requirements. While 3GPP standards comprehensively define slicing architectures over cellular access networks, the seamless integration of Non-3GPP technologies such as Wi-Fi into a unified slice instance remains an active area of investigation, particularly regarding empirical validation. This paper presents an end-to-end prototyping study that integrates 5G Standalone (SA) and Wi-Fi networks by adapting the Trusted Non-3GPP Gateway Function (TNGF) to extend NS to WLAN networks, enabling the unified management of Wi-Fi transmission resources. We implement a functional testbed leveraging an open-source 5G Core and an explicit Non-3GPP access to validate multi-Radio Access Technology (multi-RAT) slice operation. Our empirical results showcase the dynamic viability of multi-RAT slicing under varying bandwidth allocations and traffic steering policies, providing a concrete proof of concept for unified 3GPP and Non-3GPP service delivery.
Nelson Ion de Oliveira, M. Muniz, William M. C. Do Nascimento et al.· 0 citations
This survey formally categorizes state-of-the-art DTN architectures into passive monitoring twins and active control twins, and provides an in-depth evaluation of their underlying enabling technologies, specifically ray-tracing, reconfigurable intelligent surfaces, artificial intelligence, and mobile edge computing.
Charalampos Oikonomidis, E. T. Michailidis, N. Miridakis· 0 citations
This study presents a systematic comparative analysis of 5G new radio (NR) network planning at 2300 MHz for Bandung City, Indonesia, evaluating line-of-sight (LoS) and non-line-of-sight (NLoS) propagation scenarios to determine infrastructure requirements and performance characteristics for urban deployment. Employing the 3GPP TR 38.901 Urban Macro propagation model, link-budget analysis, and Atoll-based simulation for a 167.31 km² urban area, the study evaluates coverage performance under projected 2025 deployment conditions. The results reveal significant differences between propagation scenarios. LoS conditions require 45 gNodeBs for uplink coverage, achieving a synchronization signal reference signal received power (SS-RSRP) of -94.63 dBm and a synchronization signal signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio (SS-SINR) of 10.87 dB, both categorized as “Good.” In contrast, the NLoS scenario requires substantially denser deployment with 635 gNodeBs, resulting in improved SS-RSRP performance of -71.98 dBm (“Excellent”) and SS-SINR of 12.32 dB (“Good”), along with more uniform coverage distribution. The findings indicate that improved KPI performance and coverage uniformity in NLoS environments can be achieved through substantially increased infrastructure density, highlighting the trade-off between network quality, deployment complexity, and infrastructure cost in urban 5G NR planning.
Putri Rahmawati, Lia Hafiza, M. Nugraha et al.· International Journal of Ele...· 0 citations
In recent years, low-power wide-area network (LPWAN) technologies have gained significant traction as a connectivity option for Internet of Things (IoT) applications. While these networks have been successful in providing long-range, low-power, and low-cost connectivity, they currently face scalability, reliability, and efficiency challenges that require immediate attention. In this paper, we first identify important challenges for LPWANs. We then advocate for the introduction of a centralized radio access network (C-RAN) architecture tailored for LPWANs and present a proof-of-concept implementation and deployment of the proposed C-RAN for the widely popular long range (LoRa) standard. We also provide experimental results to demonstrate and quantify the increased sensitivity that can be obtained from joint processing of the baseband signals of multiple receivers, enabled by the proposed centralized architecture in quasi-static scenarios and drone-mounted transmitters.
Joachim Tapparel, Amavi Dossa, El-Mehdi Amhoud et al.· 0 citations
The transition from early non-standalone 5G deployments to 5G Standalone and, more recently, 5G-Advanced has turned mobile networks into flexible, programmable infrastructures capable of supporting private, industrial, and research-oriented deployments for the development of beyond-5G applications and architectures. Evaluating these networks’ capabilities, however, remains challenging because commercial platforms often provide limited access to internal interfaces, radio parameters, and network measurements. This paper presents an open-source private 5G SA testbed for beyond-5G application validations built using Open5GS, srsRAN, Ettus USRP N310 software-defined radio, programmable SIM cards, and commercial 5G customer-premise equipment. The platform is deployed in a semi-anechoic chamber. End-to-end operation is validated through subscriber registration, authentication, PDU session establishment, and external data connectivity. The performance of the implemented 5G network is evaluated using throughput, block error rate, modulation and coding scheme, and gNB trace logs. Unlike previous open-source 5G testbeds that primarily use RF waveguides, individual network components, or a limited set of radio configurations, the proposed platform combines COTS SIM-based UE operation with a controlled over-the-air evaluation of FDD/TDD and multiple antenna configurations and correlates application-level throughput with internal gNB radio metrics. For FDD downlink operation, the average throughput increased by approximately 74% from 1 × 1 to 2 × 2 and by a further 57% from 2 × 2 to 4 × 4, although the additional peak-throughput gain from 2 × 2 to 4 × 4 remained limited. The platform provides a reproducible environment for validating beyond-5G mechanisms, comparing network configurations, and studying the behavior of future open-source 5G SA systems under controlled conditions.
V. Popa, A. Petrariu, Alexandru A. Maftei et al.· Italian National Conference...· 0 citations
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