Linking Behaviour and Perception to Evaluate Meaningful Human Control over Partially Automated Driving

Abstract

Partial driving automation creates a tension: drivers remain legally responsible while being less active in control. Meaningful human control (MHC), a normative framework that can potentially address this tension, proposes that automated systems are designed to track relevant human reasons and that humans should at all times remain in control and be responsible. However, empirical methods for evaluating whether systems are under MHC remain underdeveloped. In this driving simulator study, we investigated the extent to which 24 drivers experienced MHC when interacting with partially automated driving systems under two modes - haptic shared control and traded control. During overtaking manoeuvres on a two-lane, two-way road with fully automated longitudinal control and partially automated lateral control, drivers' actions were necessary to prevent crashes due to silent automation failures. Starting from hypotheses derived from the properties of systems under MHC, we used a mixed-methods approach that links behavioural metrics, subjective post-trial ratings, and qualitative feedback to assess drivers' perception of responsibility and control. A confirmatory analysis indicated a negative correlation between the perception of the automated vehicle understanding the driver and conflict in steering torques. Qualitative feedback revealed that mismatches in intentions between the driver and automation, lack of safety, and resistance to driver inputs reduced perceived MHC, while subtle haptic guidance aligned with driver intent had a positive effect. Thus, future designs should prioritise effortless driver interventions, transparent communication of automation intent through haptic, visual or auditory cues, and clear authority allocation to strengthen meaningful human control in partially automated driving.