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Review Open access Jul 2026

A Critical Review of the Occurrence, Characteristics and Consequences of Micro-and Nano-plastics in Environmental Waters

Plastic pollution poses a significant and pervasive threat to aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems globally. This review provides an integrated assessment of Micro- and nano-plastics (MNPs) by linking their sources, pathways, occurrence, and environmental impacts across interconnected aquatic systems. The synthesis reveals that MNPs distribution is driven by multiple pathways, including wastewater discharges, surface runoff, and atmospheric deposition, with sediments and wetlands acting as both sinks and secondary sources. A key finding of this review is that methodological differences in sampling, digestion, density separation, and analytical techniques significantly influence reported concentrations and size distributions, often leading to the underrepresentation of smaller particles, particularly nano-plastics. While advanced analytical tools such as FTIR, Raman spectroscopy, and Py-GC/MS have improved detection and characterization, challenges remain in achieving standardized and comparable measurements across studies. Wastewater treatment plants play a dual role as both partial barriers and pathways for MNPs. Although advanced treatment processes can achieve high removal efficiencies, smaller particles often escape into receiving waters, highlighting limitations in current treatment systems. Beyond occurrence, this review emphasizes the broader ecological implications of MNPs, including their toxicological effects on aquatic organisms, disruption of ecosystem processes, and role as vectors other contaminants. Finally, this review highlights the need for standardized methodologies, improved detection of smaller particles, and integrated, system-level management strategies to better understand and mitigate the environmental risks associated with MNPs pollution.

C. Duru, Mustafa Ali, Jennifer Okafor et al. · 0 citations
Open access Jul 2026

Risk-based environmental assessment of the use of ten products from bottom ash treatment plants based on leaching and ecotoxicological tests.

Bottom ash (BA) treatment for metal recovery is widely implemented in European waste-to-energy plants. The resulting mineral fractions are increasingly recycled, mainly in construction applications. However, in many countries including Italy, assessments for verifying the environmental compatibility of the products are mainly performed through leaching compliance tests and comparing the results to generic limit values, which do not reflect actual use conditions. This study applies an integrated, risk-based assessment approach for ten mineral fraction samples produced by four full-scale Italian BA treatment plants. Standardized pH-dependence, up-flow percolation and batch leaching tests were performed on each type of sample, as well as aquatic and terrestrial ecotoxicological assays to evaluate the environmental compatibility of the materials for different use scenarios. Results showed that the groundwater application (free use) scenario was consistently critical, with exceedances for several contaminants (e.g. Al, Cr, Cu, Mo, Pb and Sb) and ecotoxicological effects observed for all samples. Conversely, for large-scale unbound applications, only limited exceedances were identified, generally within a factor of 1-3 relative to the risk-based thresholds, and mainly associated with chromium release at low liquid-to-solid ratios. Ecotoxicological results confirmed this trend, with only minor deviations (up to 1.5 times the acceptable dilution factor). No exceedances of human health risk-based limits or ecotoxicological effects were observed for applications such as road sub-base use. Overall, a good agreement was found between the leaching-based and ecotoxicological assessments, indicating that both approaches capture consistent risk patterns. The results demonstrate that, under realistic application conditions and without direct groundwater contact, the investigated materials can be safely used, supporting the adoption of scenario-based evaluation frameworks instead of generic compliance criteria.

L. Acampora, G. Costa, I. Verginelli et al. · 0 citations
Review Aug 2026

Microplastics as a source of phthalate esters in water: A review on occurrence, release mechanism, and ecological risk assessment.

Microplastics (MPs) are increasingly recognized not only as persistent particulate pollutants but also as active sources and vectors of phthalate esters (PAEs) in aquatic environments. Because PAEs are physically incorporated rather than chemically bonded within polymer matrices, they can be progressively released through leaching, photooxidation, mechanical abrasion, and biological interactions. This review synthesizes current understanding of MP-mediated PAE release, their interactions with co-contaminants, and the implications for ecological exposure. Environmental aging enhances polymer fragmentation and surface oxidation, accelerating additive desorption and altering sorption behavior. Field evidence from major river systems shows that high-molecular-weight PAEs, particularly DEHP and DBP, frequently dominate contamination profiles and contribute most significantly to ecological risk, with cumulative risk quotients (∑RQ) reaching up to 59.22 in heavily impacted watersheds. Ingestion of MPs by aquatic organisms further promotes in situ chemical transfer under gastrointestinal conditions, increasing internal exposure beyond dissolved-phase concentrations alone. Moreover, MPs act as multi-contaminant platforms, facilitating the co-transport of PAEs with metals and hydrophobic organic pollutants, thereby intensifying mixture toxicity and trophic transfer. Collectively, these processes demonstrate that MP-associated PAE release represents a dynamic and sustained pathway of chemical pollution requiring integrated risk assessment and source-control strategies.

Retno Wulandari, Nurul Fahimah, Hanny Merinawati et al. · 0 citations
Review Open access Aug 2026

Nanotechnology-Enabled Remediation of Contaminated Soils: Mechanisms, Soil Constraints, Environmental Risks, and Implications for Sustainable Land Management

Engineered nanomaterials have been increasingly proposed for the treatment of contaminated soils. Nevertheless, most available evidence has been obtained in water, artificial substrates or short-term laboratory experiments, and performance in real soil is substantially more variable. This review examines nanoscale zero-valent iron, photocatalytic metal oxides, carbon-based nanomaterials, and supported or hybrid formulations, with particular attention to the soil properties and contaminant characteristics that control their mobility, transformation, reactivity, and persistence. Nano-enabled treatments can decrease the mobility of arsenic, chromium, lead, and other potentially toxic elements and can promote the degradation of selected pesticides and hydrocarbons. However, opposite responses have also been reported, including mobilisation of non-target elements, nanoparticle aggregation and passivation, effects on microbial communities and plants, contaminant rebound, and potential transport beyond the treated zone. Environmental assessment should therefore consider both the target contaminant and the applied or transformed nanomaterial, together with ecological and occupational exposure pathways. Current evidence does not support nanoremediation as a general replacement for conventional technologies. Its main value lies in its use as a site-specific component of integrated remediation strategies selected according to soil properties, contaminant behaviour, treatment scale, cost, life-cycle impacts, and future land use. European field experience remains limited, particularly in unsaturated soils, and no harmonised EU-wide authorisation procedure specifically for soil nanoremediation currently exists. Wider implementation will require realistic field trials, long-term monitoring, safer and recoverable formulations, transparent regulatory assessment, and evaluation of soil functions and ecosystem-service recovery. A site-specific decision framework is proposed to support material selection, risk–benefit evaluation, and responsible implementation.

Leticia Merchán, Hugo Díez, A. Martínez-Graña et al. · 0 citations
Open access Jul 2026

A 15-year atmospheric record of intentionally produced persistent organic pollutants in Spain: Spatial gradients, thermodynamic fractionation, and temporal trends.

This study presents a comprehensive 15-year (2009-2023) assessment of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in the Spanish atmosphere to evaluate the Stockholm Convention's effectiveness. Polyurethane foam passive samplers were deployed across 23 sites to monitor legacy pesticides and industrial chemicals. Results reveal a concentration hierarchy dominated by hexachlorobenzene (HCB), which accounted for a median of 41% of the ∑POP concentrations and displayed a remote-enriched spatial pattern characteristic of global distillation. In contrast, legacy pesticides and indicator polychlorinated biphenyls (iPCBs) were influenced by temperature-dependent secondary volatilization from historically contaminated soils, as indicated by Clausius-Clapeyron analyses. These compounds frequently exhibited an unexpected urban enrichment likely associated with heat island effects, while polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) displayed a pronounced urban gradient (a 35-fold increase from remote baselines) driven by the late-regulated BDE-209. Long-term temporal analyses underscore a sharp regulatory dichotomy. Early-banned compounds, such as endosulfan, HCB and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), and lighter PBDEs, are experiencing rapid environmental depletion, with significant annual declines of up to -33%. Conversely, pentachlorobenzene (PeCB), iPCBs, and BDE-209 show stalled or locally increasing trends (up to +20%), sustained by unintentional combustion, active consumer goods, and regulatory lag times. Altitudinal profiling across Tenerife sites highlights this divergence: coastal areas reflect local secondary emissions, whereas high-altitude observations confirm the progressive clearance of the global free troposphere. Overall, these findings provide new insights into the spatial and temporal dynamics of atmospheric POPs, reaffirming the role of long-term monitoring in guiding international abatement strategies.

A. de la Torre, J. Muñoz-Arnanz, I. Navarro et al. · 0 citations
Open access Jul 2026

From sources to solutions: An integrated framework for industrial risk assessment, subsurface contaminant dynamics, and Nature-Based remediation from RemTech Europe 2024.

Effective territorial preservation and contaminated site management require an integrated, multi-scale framework that bridges macroeconomic tracking with site-specific physics, chemical forensics, and biotechnology. Within this framework, this Brief Communication synthesizes seven key advancements discussed at RemTech Europe 2024. Environmental assessments presented during the meeting span from the macro-regional level with soil pollution inventories in the Western Balkans to localized atmospheric Natural-Hazard Triggered Technological Accidents (NaTech) risk modeling for industrial facilities. At the subsurface scale, the dynamic interplay of groundwater table fluctuations controls light non-aqueous phase liquid (LNAPL) migration, while hydrogeological fingerprinting isolates distinct anthropogenic PFAS sources. Addressing these complex matrices, biotechnological assessments elucidate how emerging graphene-related nanomaterials interact with biodegradative enzymes to evaluate targeted biodegradation pathways. Finally, the scale transitions to nature-based engineering solutions, utilizing urban green gutters for stormwater retention and quantifying the long-term recovery of ecosystem services through spontaneous quarry revegetation. The integration of modeling, forensic analysis, biotechnologies, and nature-based solutions provides actionable insights for environmental risk management and sustainable land-use planning. Ultimately, this collective evidence offers regulators and stakeholders an operational roadmap to accelerate the transition from hazard identification to scale-appropriate, climate-resilient remediation strategies.

P. Grenni, Marco Falconi · 0 citations

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