Low cost energy harvesting systems for smart sensing and Internet of Things applications

Abstract

The increasing proliferation of the Internet of Things (IoT), wireless sensor networks (WSN), wearable electronics, and smart sensing platforms have intensified the demand for sustainable and maintenance-free power sources. Energy harvesting has emerged as a promising solution to replace or complement traditional batteries by converting ambient energy into usable electrical power. This review paper provides a critical and comparative assessment of low-cost energy harvesting technologies and their potential to enable self-powered electronic systems. Various energy transduction mechanisms, including piezoelectric, triboelectric, thermoelectric, photovoltaic, and radio frequency (RF)-based approaches, are analyzed in terms of efficiency, scalability, and suitability for different environments. This review also covers important aspects of power management, such as rectification circuits, power management integrated circuits (PMICs), maximum power point tracking (MPPT) methods, and energy storage solutions needed for dependable and effective operation. Furthermore, application-oriented studies covering biomedical devices, wearable electronics, structural health monitoring, industrial monitoring, and agriculture-based IoT deployments are conducted to illustrate the practical deployment of energy harvesting technologies. Major challenges associated with low startup voltages, energy intermittency, miniaturization, and long-term reliability are highlighted, along with emerging research trends including hybrid multi-source harvesting, flexible materials, and energy-aware computing. Through comparative analysis and extensive coverage of recent developments, this review provides researchers and system designers with a practical roadmap for the development of efficient, low-cost, and sustainable self-powered technologies for next-generation IoT and smart sensing applications.