Beyond screen time: Explaining cross-national differences in digital literacy through socioeconomic and psychological mechanisms

Abstract

This study provides a structural explanation for cross-national variation in the relationship between screen time and digital outcomes. While prior research and large-scale assessments such as ICILS have documented inconsistent associations between screen time and digital competence, the mechanisms underlying these differences remain unclear. Using ICILS 2023 data, this study employs multigroup structural equation modeling to examine the relationships among socioeconomic status, screen time regulation, ICT self-efficacy, and digital literacy outcomes. Results reveal substantial cross-country differences in the effects of screen time regulation. In contrast, ICT self-efficacy emerges as a consistent and robust predictor across all countries. Moreover, screen time regulation influences outcomes indirectly through self-efficacy in some contexts but not others. These findings challenge the use of screen time as a standalone indicator of digital engagement and highlight the importance of psychological mechanisms. By integrating socioeconomic, behavioral, and psychological factors, this study advances a more nuanced understanding of digital competence and moves beyond quantity-based approaches to digital learning.