Although Problem-Based Learning (PBL) has been implemented to foster critical thinking, evidence regarding the consistency of its effectiveness across instructional formats, subject domains, and geographical contexts in Indonesia remains fragmented. This meta-analysis quantitatively synthesized the effects of PBL on students’ critical thinking while examining implementation type, subject cluster, and geographical region as moderators. A systematic search of Google Scholar was conducted in May–June 2026 for peer-reviewed studies published between 2019 and 2026. Following PRISMA 2020 procedures, 100 records were identified and 22 studies involving 1,513 participants were included. Effect sizes were calculated using Hedges’ g and synthesized with a random-effects model in Comprehensive Meta-Analysis Version 3. The pooled effect was large and statistically significant (g = 1.487, 95% CI [1.018, 1.955], p < .001). However, heterogeneity was very high (I² = 92.90%), and the prediction interval crossed zero (−0.616 to 3.589), indicating contextual variation. Subject cluster and geography did not significantly moderate the effect, suggesting that the observed benefits were not systematically confined to particular disciplines or regions. In contrast, implementation type was a significant moderator, with Integrated PBL producing a larger pooled estimate than Pure PBL. The Assisted PBL estimate was imprecise, non-significant, and based on only two studies, precluding claims of superiority. The funnel plot appeared approximately symmetrical, although visual inspection alone could not rule out publication bias. Overall, implementation quality, scaffolding, facilitation, and contextual alignment appear more decisive than subject area or geography in shaping PBL effectiveness.
Against the backdrop of the worldwide shift toward competency-driven basic education reform, project-based learning (PBL) is widely recognized for its student-centered design and authentic problem-solving approach. Empirical evidence on the effectiveness of Mathematics PBL is highly varied; traditional meta-analysis often fails to properly address nested data structures. This study conducted a three-level meta-analysis spanning the past 20 years, a total of 35 eligible studies were included. In the primary meta-analytic model, two statistically outlying studies were identified and excluded based on Cook’s distance. Ultimately, 33 studies with 84 effect sizes were incorporated into the main effect analysis.to comprehensively quantify PBL’s impact on students’ mathematical achievement. The results indicated a significant overall effect size for PBL (Cohen’s
d
= 0.529, 95% CI [0.38, 0.68]), but publication bias analyses suggested potential overestimation (trim-and-fill corrected estimate = 0.275); therefore, findings should be interpreted cautiously. Moderator analyses revealed that cultural background and intervention duration significantly influenced outcomes. Notably, PBL demonstrated strong effectiveness within a 1-to-8-week timeframe. Non-cognitive abilities showed a numerically larger effect than cognitive abilities, but the difference was not statistically significant (
p
= 0.083). No significant moderators were found for educational level, class size, group size, mathematics knowledge domain, publication type, or the number of technology types used, suggesting that PBL is broadly generalizable across various mathematics teaching contexts. Given the presence of publication bias, these results provide moderate rather than robust support for the localized application of mathematics PBL.
https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/view/CRD420251105265
, identifier CRD420251105265.
Unknown authors· Frontiers in Psychology· 0 citations
In this meta-analysis, the goal was to look at how Problem-Based Learning (PBL) impacted the comprehension and performance levels of students in different STEM subject areas. The analysis consisted of 13 peer-reviewed journals that were published between 2022 and 2025, as well as a review of the data using a random effects model. All studies met PRISMA criteria for inclusion. The pooled effect size was large (Hedges' g = 1.21; 95% CI [0.80, 1.62]), suggesting that PBL produces a more significant improvement in learning outcomes than traditional teaching methods. There was also a high level of heterogeneity across studies (I² = 87.2%), which resulted from differences among study designs, disciplines and settings. The three disciplines with the largest improvement as a result of PBL were nursing, pharmacy, and biochemistry, suggesting that PBL is most effective when used with hands-on or laboratory experience. Low levels of publication bias were evident in the funnel plot analysis, lending to the credibility for the findings. Overall, the results from this study show that PBL positively impacts both understanding (improved) and significantly helps students develop critical thinking and/or problem-solving skills as well as support the growing population of student self-directed learners. PBL should always be incorporated into all areas of STEM curriculum and be further supported by appropriate teacher training and policies at the institutional level, this practice could lead to increased student interest and achievement in 21st century education.
Simon Ndebila, B. M. Larweh, Nana Armah Korankye· International journal of res...· 0 citations
Higher order thinking skills (HOTS) are a core competency in 21st-century mathematics education, yet they remain difficult to achieve through conventional instruction. The flipped classroom has been proposed as an alternative that reverses the allocation of learning time so that higher order thinking activities can be facilitated more intensively in class. This study quantitatively synthesized the magnitude of the flipped classroom effect on mathematical HOTS through a meta-analysis. Eleven effect sizes drawn from experimental and quasi-experimental studies with a total of 1,091 participants were analyzed using a random-effects model with Hedges g as the effect size index. The pooled effect size was g = 0.82 (95% CI [0.59, 1.05]; p < 0.001), which is large, with moderate to substantial heterogeneity (I-squared = 67.6%). Publication bias tests indicated robust findings. Moderator analysis showed that education level, country, and flipped classroom variant acted as significant moderators, whereas the HOTS domain did not. These findings strengthen the evidence that the flipped classroom is effective for developing mathematical HOTS across contexts.
Julham Hukom, Said Sudi Khassim· Arshaka: Pedagogy and Learni...· 0 citations
English writing proficiency among EFL learners in Indonesia remains below regional benchmarks, and despite growing interest in learner-centered pedagogies, there is limited synthesis comparing the effects of inquiry-based learning (IBL) and contextual teaching and learning (CTL), particularly regarding their combined impact. This study addresses this gap through a PRISMA-guided systematic literature review of empirical studies published between 2015 and 2025. Searches were conducted across major databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, and Taylor & Francis, yielding 35 eligible studies for analysis. A narrative synthesis complemented by a quantitative summary of comparable studies indicates that both IBL and CTL produce significant positive effects on students’ English writing performance, with a pooled effect size of approximately d ≈ 0.81 (95% CI [0.65, 0.97]), suggesting a moderate-to-large overall impact. IBL consistently enhances cognitive dimensions of writing, such as idea generation, organization, and critical thinking, whereas CTL demonstrates strong effects on engagement, contextual understanding, and learner motivation. However, direct comparative and hybrid studies remain limited, although preliminary evidence suggests additive benefits when both approaches are integrated. These findings imply that EFL teachers and curriculum designers should consider combining inquiry cycles with context-based writing tasks to simultaneously develop cognitive and affective dimensions of writing. Future research should prioritize rigorous comparative and longitudinal designs to validate the effectiveness of integrated IBL–CTL models across diverse EFL contexts.
Sapto Sugiharto, Merry Lapasau, W. Widodo et al.· Journal of Languages and Lan...· 0 citations
Aim/Purpose: This systematic literature review aims to comprehensively and critically synthesize the impacts of generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) tools on students’ critical thinking (CT) and problem-solving (PS) skills. In addition, it seeks to identify key research gaps and contribute to the theoretical discussion of GenAI’s dual nature in education.
Background: GenAI is increasingly integrated into educational contexts, prompting ongoing debate about its influence on CT and PS – essential 21st-century skills. Despite the rapid growth in interest in GenAI-supported learning, a clear synthesis of empirical evidence on its impact on these skills remains limited.
Methodology: Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, we conducted a systematic review of empirical studies published between 2022 and 2025 that examined the use of GenAI in relation to students’ CT and PS. In total, 173 records were included in the review.
Contribution: This review advances a nuanced understanding of GenAI’s dual role in education by synthesizing current empirical evidence and providing a foundation for informed pedagogical, policy, and research decisions.
Findings: Our systematic review has demonstrated that GenAI holds considerable potential to act as both a catalyst and a constraint in the development of students’ CT and PS. On one hand, GenAI can scaffold reflective inquiry, foster diverse perspectives, and support structured engagement with complex tasks. On the other hand, its widespread and often uncritical use raises concerns around dependency, superficial reasoning, and the erosion of independent PS and CT capacities.
Recommendations for Practitioners: The findings highlight the importance of designing learning environments that cultivate AI literacy, understood not merely as technical proficiency, but as the capacity to interrogate, contextualize, and critically engage with AI-generated content. Embedding AI literacy across educational contexts may help protect CT and PS while enabling responsible use of GenAI.
Recommendation for Researchers: The review identified three major research gaps: a strong regional imbalance favoring high-income contexts; a predominance of self-reported and cross-sectional designs over experimental approaches; and a disproportionate focus on university students compared to earlier educational stages.
Impact on Society: The findings suggest that the key issue is not whether GenAI will shape education, but how educational systems will shape its use. Evidence-based and deliberate integration of GenAI is essential if it is to support, rather than undermine, the development of students’ CT and PS.
Future Research: Future studies should employ robust longitudinal and experimental designs to examine the long-term cognitive and developmental impacts of sustained use of GenAI, particularly in underexplored educational contexts.
Tomáš Bendl, Lenka Krajňáková, Hilde Storrøsæter et al.· J. Inf. Technol. Educ. Res.· 0 citations
Abstract
The development of a curriculum through a contextual approach is widely recognized as an effective way to enhance students' critical thinking skills. To improve critical thinking, the contextual approach employs two main types of innovations: digital media (including augmented reality, virtual classes, and digital games) and non-digital innovations (SSCS, PBL, and Thinking Empowerment). However, debate exists on whether digital media's immersive engagement or non-digital methods' personalized, hands-on experience is more effective for delivering contextual learning and enhancing critical thinking. This study performs a meta-analysis and bibliometric analysis to assess the effectiveness of contextual learning using both digital and non-digital media in boosting critical thinking skills. Adhering to PRISMA guidelines, a literature search identified 16 studies published between 2020 and 2024 that met the inclusion criteria. These studies were analyzed using VOS-viewer to visualize research trends and SPSS for statistical tests, including ANCOVA with effect size. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test result was 0.081 > α 0.05, Levene's test result was 0.259 > α 0.05, ANCOVA significance was 0.927 > α 0.05, and the effect size was 0.001. The findings indicate that both digital and non-digital media effectively enhance critical thinking skills, with no significant difference in their effectiveness. This implies that the choice between digital and non-digital methods should depend on factors such as accessibility, cost, and personal preference, as both approaches are equally effective for fostering critical thinking in a contextual learning environment.
