Nano-enabled microbial bioinputs for sustainable agriculture: advances, mechanisms, applications, and future challenges

Abstract

Microbial bioinputs have emerged as key components of sustainable agriculture owing to their ability to promote plant growth, improve nutrient acquisition, enhance tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses, and suppress phytopathogens. Despite their considerable potential, the widespread adoption of these technologies remains constrained by limited environmental persistence, reduced formulation stability, and inconsistent performance under field conditions. In this context, nanotechnology has emerged as a promising approach to improve the stability, delivery efficiency, and agronomic reliability of microbial bioinputs. This review provides a critical and comprehensive assessment of recent advances in nano-enabled microbial bioinputs, discussing the mechanisms through which nanomaterials enhance microbial protection, stabilization, controlled release, delivery efficiency, and functional persistence. Particular emphasis is placed on bionanofertilizers and bionanopesticides as emerging technologies for improving nutrient use efficiency, biological crop protection, and soil–plant–microbiome interactions while reducing dependence on conventional agrochemicals. The review also critically examines current knowledge on biosafety, ecological impacts, regulatory frameworks, and the practical challenges associated with large-scale agricultural implementation. Current evidence indicates that nano-enabled formulations can address several limitations associated with conventional microbial bioinputs and contribute to more consistent agronomic performance under environmentally variable conditions. However, most available studies remain limited to laboratory and greenhouse experiments, while robust long-term validation under diverse field conditions is still lacking. In addition, uncertainties regarding environmental fate, nanoparticle–microbiome interactions, standardized biosafety assessment, scalable manufacturing, regulatory harmonization, and economic feasibility continue to constrain broader commercial adoption. Overall, nano-enabled microbial bioinputs represent a promising technological platform for bridging the gap between laboratory innovation and consistent field performance. Their successful implementation will depend on integrating advances in microbiology, nanotechnology, formulation engineering, and environmental risk assessment with rigorous field validation, scalable production strategies, and harmonized regulatory frameworks. Addressing these challenges will be essential to support the development of resilient, resource-efficient, and environmentally sustainable agricultural systems.