Optimal NESS transitions in underdamped systems with memory

Abstract

Optimal finite-time control is essential for energy-efficient operation of nanoscale devices. While existing work has largely focused on transitions between equilibrium states in overdamped systems, many settings of practical interest-including nanomechanical resonators, biomolecular conformational dynamics, and quantum Brownian motion-are governed by underdamped dynamics where both particle inertia and frequency-dependent friction (memory) play a non-negligible role. In this study, we analytically and computationally investigate optimal transitions between nonequilibrium steady states (NESS) for an underdamped particle in a moving harmonic trap with general memory kernels. We find that inertia qualitatively alters optimal control in the presence of memory. Compared to the overdamped case, underdamped dynamics break the time-reversal symmetry, making the forward and backward optimal protocols fundamentally distinct. Across the memory-kernel types examined, the asymmetry, rather than the detailed form of the kernel, governs the structure of the optimal strategy. These results offer a unified framework for optimal control in underdamped systems with memory.