Jul 2026· ACM Transactions on Embedded Computing Systems· Vol 25, pp. 1 - 30· 0 citations· 34 references
TL;DR
A unified routing and scheduling framework that jointly optimizes TT communication while systematically improving AVB performance is presented, which significantly improves AVB schedulability and delay bounds while maintaining TT feasibility with low computational overhead.
Abstract
Time-Sensitive Networking (TSN) supports mixed-criticality communication by integrating Time-Triggered (TT) and Audio Video Bridging (AVB) traffic within a unified network infrastructure. While TT flows benefit from deterministic scheduling through the Time-Aware Shaper (TAS), their presence can increase the worst-case delay (WCD) experienced by AVB traffic. However, many existing AVB-aware TT scheduling approaches incur high computational costs and lack a theoretical foundation for analyzing the impact of TT routing on AVB performance. To address these limitations, this article presents a unified routing and scheduling framework that jointly optimizes TT communication while systematically improving AVB performance. At the core of our method is a network calculus-based analysis that derives a theoretical lower bound on AVB WCD under TT interference. This bound is consistently leveraged in both the routing and scheduling stages: first, to define a flow-level metric called Impact on WCD (IoW) that guides AVB-aware routing decisions; and second, to introduce an AVB-Aware Idle Constraint that regulates TT offsets to shape residual bandwidth for AVB traffic. Extensive experiments across diverse topologies and traffic patterns demonstrate that the proposed framework significantly improves AVB schedulability and delay bounds while maintaining TT feasibility with low computational overhead. These results confirm the practicality and effectiveness of a tightly integrated approach to TSN configuration for mixed-criticality systems.
An improved strict-priority Deficit Round-Robin (SP-DRR) scheduling strategy is proposed and incorporates it into a unified moment generating function (MGF) analytical framework, referred to as SP-DRR-MGF, for probabilistic E2E delay analysis in 5G–TSN networks.
Xiaohuan Zhang, Jiancheng Qin, Yiqin Lu et al.· PeerJ Computer Science· 0 citations
The integration of Time-Sensitive Networking (TSN) and 5G is essential for deterministic industrial communication over mixed wired–wireless networks. In 3GPP TSN–5G integration, the 5G System (5GS) is modeled as a logical TSN bridge for Time-Aware Shaper (TAS) scheduling. However, Time Division Duplex (TDD) operation in 5GS introduces the transmission waiting time, and conventional bridge-delay-based scheduling must rely on conservative worst-case assumptions.In this paper, we analyze the periodic structure of TDD-induced waiting time and show that its worst-case value is determined by the TDD pattern, TSN flow period, and their phase offset. Based on this insight, we propose a phase-aware TAS scheduling method that derives a mapping between phase offsets and worst-case waiting times and incorporates it into E2E TAS scheduling. Simulations under multiple TSN flow periods and TDD patterns show that the proposed method consistently reduces worst-case waiting time compared with the conventional approach. Multiple flow evaluations also show that multiple TSN flows can be scheduled while satisfying E2E delay constraints under the evaluated configuration. This enables more flexible deployment of time-critical industrial IoT applications, including mobile robot control, motion control, and factory automation over mixed wired–wireless networks.
Keita Kuwayama, H. Kawata, Hironao Abe et al.· International Conference on...· 0 citations
Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed QoS-mapping-based no-wait latency-balanced joint scheduling (QMLB-JS) algorithm improves the end-to-end deterministic transmission capability of the integrated 5G-TSN network.
He Li, Shihui Duan, Fangmin Xu et al.· IEEE Open Journal of the Com...· 0 citations
The development of immersive video service and large-scale cluster computing technology further expand the potential application scope of time-sensitive networks (TSN). In the delivery network for these emerging services, Ultra-Service Flows (USFs), characterized by ultra-high bandwidth and deterministic latency, have become the most representative traffic type. Therefore, the route scheduling for hybrid deployment of Regular-Service Flows (RSFs) and USF has become an unavoidable issue within a deterministic domain. However, existing research has not thoroughly investigated routing issues for the hybrid deployment of USF and RSF since the significant differences between them. To resolve this issue, a multi-objective optimization model is designed in this paper, in which three key factors are comprehensively considered: the path blocking degree of USF, the available bandwidth rate, and the end-to-end latency of RSF. Subsequently, we propose a cooperative framework where a Transformer-DRL agent, enforced by validity-constraint masking, generates high-quality initial populations to “warm start” NSGA-II. This hybrid design replaces random initialization, effectively resolving the evolutionary “cold start” issue in large-scale topologies while ensuring routing feasibility. The simulation results demonstrate that the algorithm proposed here in significantly improves performance and generalization capabilities, improving the RSF’s overall latency, the USF’s path-blocking degree, and the available bandwidth rate by 10.526%, 14.102%, and 14.286%, respectively.
Mengjie Guo, Qiang Wu, Ran Wang et al.· IEEE Transactions on Network...· 0 citations
The lack of determinism restricts the integration of safety-critical applications into Edge–Fog–Cloud (EFC) architectures. Existing EFC schedulers are typically designed for dynamic, best-effort operation based on unmanaged resource allocation and elastic virtualization. This paradigm introduces unbounded queueing, resource contention, and timing jitter, making standard schedulers unsuitable for hard-deadline workloads. Moreover, most approaches focus on computational placement, while communication is abstracted or treated as a secondary cost term. As a result, bounded-latency routing and deterministic task execution are rarely co-optimized under a unified timing model. This paper addresses these gaps by utilizing a managed Time-Triggered Edge–Fog–Cloud (TTEFC) architecture that supports safety-critical workloads, orchestrates IEEE Time-Sensitive Networking (TSN) for local intra-domain communication, and uses IETF Deterministic Networking (DetNet) for routed inter-domain paths. On this infrastructure, a hierarchical genetic algorithm (HGA) is proposed to jointly schedule partition-to-execution-location allocation, partition execution order, inter-partition route selection, and negotiated per-partition time budgets that act as temporal boundaries for parallel partition-level optimizers. An adaptive slack reallocation operator redistributes unused temporal slack from over-satisfied partitions to budget-violating partitions, improving feasibility convergence. Experiments on synthetic DAG workloads with 100–500 tasks compare the proposed HGA against HEFT and round-robin baselines. These baselines are included as scoped external references to contextualize the end-to-end scheduling performance of the proposed method. Ablation results show that slack reallocation improves partition-budget feasibility, reaches feasible budget assignments earlier, and produces tighter budget–makespan alignment than feedback-free and static-budget variants. An automotive-characteristic DAG case study further evaluates the method on an application-oriented workload under the same timing and communication assumptions.
Omar Hekal, Josepaul Paulachan, Daniel Onwuchekwa et al.· Future Internet· 0 citations
The proposed SPN model enables system architects to compare routing configurations, identify performance bottlenecks, and size infrastructure components without requiring physical deployment, and enables the identification of communication bottlenecks without requiring physical deployment.
José Miquéias Araújo, L. Lopes, Luiz Nelson Lima et al.· Journal of Internet Services...· 0 citations
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