TL;DR
This paper presents detailed algorithm for calculating L-LSR coefficient, and shows that L-LSR algorithm not only performs better than OSPF, but also has verySignificant performance improvement over the other LSR family of algorithms.
Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) plays a critical role in the backbone networks of Internet Service Providers (ISPs), ensuring robust and scalable network operation. By employing label-based switching instead of destination-based IP forwarding, MPLS significantly reduces forwarding complexity and supports advanced traffic engineering mechanisms. Within MPLS, the Label Distribution Protocol (LDP) is typically used for label distribution, relying on routing information from the Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP). When a link or node failure occurs, LDP is forced to wait for the IGP to re-calculate and update the new paths before it can assign labels for Forwarding Equivalence Classes (FECs). This dependency significantly increases service disruption time due to the combined IGP convergence time and the subsequent label replacement mechanism (withdrawing old labels and installing new ones). Therefore, this paper proposes a novel scheme to mitigate LDP’s dependence on the IGP, thereby minimizing network restoration time during network topology changes. The method utilizes an event-driven signaling mechanism to instantly announce link and node outages across the network. Furthermore, it establishes and installs both primary and backup Label Switched Paths (LSPs) during the initial setup phase of the router. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method significantly outperforms LDP, achieving a convergence time up to four times faster in large-scale network scenarios and proving superior scalability.
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are well-established, smart systems whose significance is rapidly escalating. Geographic routing offers many advantages in terms of network reliability and performance. However, they tend to fail in high congestion and the presence of energy holes. To address these challenges, a new geographic routing technique has been introduced to enhance network performance. The proposed routing algorithm is built upon the Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to the Ideal Solution (TOPSIS). TOPSIS will use four criteria to forward data reports to the best-neighbor node without causing excessive congestion. In addition, the proposed algorithm will be embedded with a technique that retard the energy hole formation and can bypass them effectively without expanding them. The Path Deviation (PD) technique will prevent repetitive sending along the same paths. PD technique removes the previous forwarding node from the routing table. The proposed routing algorithm outperforms the benchmark algorithms, delivering notable improvements in packet error rate, reaching 29.3% and 16.4% compared to the FTR and EEGR algorithms, respectively. Moreover, the proposed routing algorithm demonstrates enhanced performance over the benchmark algorithms, achieving gains in packet delivery ratio of 2.6% and 1.16%, respectively. At the same time, it outperforms the network lifetime of the FTR algorithm by 28.4% and the EEGR algorithm by 11.7%. Lastly, it reduces latency by 12.2% compared with FTR and 18.2% compared with EEGR.
Routing in Flying Ad Hoc Networks (FANETs) poses challenges because of their dynamic topology and limited resources. Developing effective routing protocols (RPs) is essential to enhancing the network's Quality of Service (QoS). An example of such a protocol is the Multipath Energy-efficient and Predictive Fuzzy Logic with Consistent Link-based Copy Adaptive Transmit-based Routing Protocol (MEPFL-CLCT-RP), which utilizes backup paths based on link survival probabilities to improve the data communication and network performance. However, the protocol faces issues such as high complexity and routing overhead, particularly in environments with high mobility, which can affect scalability. This paper proposes a novel approach by incorporating the Hippopotamus Optimization Algorithm (HOA) with MEPFL-CLCT-RP for FANETs. The proposed HOA-MEPFL-CLCT-RP uses a Fuzzy Logic (FL) system to identify several suboptimal routes connecting the origin and target nodes. The HOA then ranks and selects the most reliable backup path by evaluating potential routes based on their link survival probability. This technique minimizes routing overhead and delays, ensuring smooth transitions to backup paths during link failures. Simulation results indicate that HOA-MEPFL-CLCT-RP outperforms existing models in terms of Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR), energy efficiency, End-to-End Delay (E2D), and routing overhead.
The local failover routing is a mechanism that routes a packet from a source to a destination only using pre-calculated routing tables, even when several edges fail. In this paper, we study local failover schemes that minimize the number of rewritable bits in the packet header on directed graphs with $k$-arc failures. There are many studies of failover routing on undirected graphs, and it has been investigated whether routing is possible depending on the number of bits in the packet header, the type of failure, the graph properties, etc. In contrast, there is not much research on directed graphs. Van et al.~first showed the upper and lower bounds of rewritable bits in the packet header on directed graphs. However, their results showed a large gap between the upper and lower bounds. The main contribution of this paper is to close the gap between the upper and lower bounds. Specifically, we show that our scheme can route packets with $k$ faulty arcs if the packet header has $\min(k \log ( \frac{e(2n+k-3)}{k}, 2n \log ( \frac{e(2n+k-3)}{2n})))$ rewritable bits, where $n$ is the number of nodes. Moreover, any local failover routing scheme needs $\Omega(k\lceil\log\frac{n}{k}\rceil)$ rewritable bits when the number of faulty arcs is equal to or less than $\frac{3(n-1)}{8}$ and $\frac{n-1}{4}$ rewritable bits when the number of faulty arc is more than $\frac{3(n-1)}{8}$. This result means our scheme is nearly optimal when the number of faulty arcs is approximately less than the number of nodes.
Assurance, traffic management, and Quality of Service (QoS) are still ongoing and interconnected issues in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs), which are extremely flexible, infrastructure-free cellular networks. While inexpensive pathfinding is provided by traditional reactive routing technologies, such as the Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) algorithm, the system is vulnerable to packet-dropping assaults, stream congestion, and a lack of stream separation. The Hybrid AAODV–APBROP routing protocol proposed in this paper combines three identical methods: (i) an adaptive priority-based packet scheduler that prioritizes real-time and emergency flows over best-effort traffic; (ii) a queue-length-based congestion detection component that directs traffic away from overloaded paths; and (iii) a dynamic trust assessment system that identifies and isolates unauthorized packet-dropping nodes. The approach is validated by substantial NS-3 simulations for networks of 20–50 nodes with mobility. In comparison to traditional AODV, the hybrid protocol obtains a hostile node recognition rate surpassing 94%, increases the Packet Delivery Ratio by up to 49.6%, increases throughput by 82.6%, decreases end-to-end delay by 40.3%, and maintains routing cost within reasonable ranges. These findings verify that MANET transmission is demonstrably enhanced and safer when trust, congestion, and QoS are all addressed concurrently at a particular transit level as opposed to individual-criterion techniques.