Environmental occurrence, human exposure, toxicological effects, and management implications of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon derivatives.

Abstract

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) derivatives, including nitrated, oxygenated, halogenated, and alkylated PAHs, have attracted growing concern because of their wide environmental distribution and enhanced toxicity compared with parent PAHs. They are generated through combustion, industrial emissions, and secondary atmospheric or microbial transformations, and have been detected across multiple environmental media and even in remote regions. Compared with parent PAHs, these derivatives often show greater persistence, mobility, bioavailability, and toxicity, thereby increasing ecological and human health risks. Human exposure occurs through inhalation, ingestion, and dermal contact, but the dominant exposure route depends on the exposure setting. Toxicological studies further show that PAH derivatives impair growth, development, reproduction, and cellular function through oxidative stress, DNA damage, mitochondrial dysfunction, endocrine disruption, and metabolic disturbance. However, current evidence remains fragmented because monitoring systems, exposure models, and toxicity assessments often focus on parent PAHs or single compounds. This review therefore integrates emission sources, multimedia fate, different exposure routes, mixture toxicity, and management limitations of PAH derivatives. It also examines differences among exposure scenarios and populations, identifies regulatory and monitoring gaps, and evaluates control and remediation strategies. The resulting synthesis provides a basis for improving risk assessment and environmental management of PAH derivatives.