Proteus-based circuit simulation and differentiated learning in vocational electronics education: a quasi-experimental study to overcome laboratory infrastructure limitations in vocational high schools
Electronics education at vocational high schools (SMK) in Indonesia often faces a gap between curriculum requirements and limited laboratory infrastructure. This situation makes it difficult for students to develop an understanding of abstract electrical concepts. This study evaluates the effectiveness of integrating the Proteus circuit simulation software with a differentiated learning process strategy on students’ cognitive achievement in the subject of Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics. The research design used was quasi-experimental with a nonequivalent control-group pretest–posttest design, involving 62 students in the Electronics Engineering Program at a vocational high school in Central Java. The experimental group ( n = 31) received Proteus simulation-based learning with process differentiation through three types of activities (hands-on manipulation, visual demonstration, and guided verbal explanation), while the control group ( n = 31) received conventional instruction. Students’ learning style preferences were measured using the Index of Learning Styles descriptively to explain the variety of activities, not as a basis for instruction matching. Data collection was conducted through a cognitive achievement test (30 items; KMO = 0.87; α = 0.84), the Index of Learning Styles questionnaire (44 items; α = 0.79), and a structured observation sheet ( κ = 0.82). The Wilcoxon, Mann–Whitney U, N-Gain, and Kruskal–Wallis tests were applied for data analysis. The results showed a substantial improvement in the experimental group (Z = −4.852; p < 0.001), with a mean N-Gain of 0.93 (high category), compared to the control group's 0.38 (moderate category). Because the Proteus simulation and process differentiation were delivered simultaneously as a single intervention package, the findings are interpreted as the effect of the combined intervention rather than of either component in isolation. These results indicate that circuit simulations combined with various learning activities can serve as an ICT-based alternative to bridge the limitations of laboratory infrastructure in vocational education. This study also critically discusses the hypothesis of matching instruction to learning styles and offers a process differentiation framework as a more valid alternative interpretation