Poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) is a biodegradable and biocompatible polyester widely used in biomedical scaffolds. However, its relatively low mechanical strength and limited cell adhesion properties remain major challenges for bone tissue engineering applications. This study developed a 3D-printed PCL mesh enhanced with calcium carbonate (CaCO3) to improve mechanical strength and cytocompatibility. PCL was synthesized via ring-opening polymerization at 120 °C for 72 h using 0.015 mol % of Sn(OnBu)2 as the initiator, resulting in a high molecular weight polymer of 189 kg/mol. The addition of 5 wt % CaCO3 into the PCL matrix enhanced the flexural performance of the biocomposite mesh compared to pure PCL, with flexural strength increasing from 2.11 ± 0.46 to 4.17 ± 1.15 MPa and Young’s modulus increasing from 81 ± 14 to 130 ± 33 MPa, a value within the range reported for native trabecular bone. Cytocompatibility was evaluated using L929 fibroblasts and the MTT assay, following ISO 10993-5 guidelines, and demonstrated noncytotoxic behavior, with cell viability ranging from 80% to 110% over 28 days. Additionally, MG-63 osteoblast-like cells showed increased proliferation on the PCL-CaCO3 mesh. These results demonstrate the feasibility of the 3D-printed PCL-CaCO3 mesh as a mechanically reinforced, cytocompatible scaffold candidate for bone tissue engineering applications, warranting further evaluation of osteogenic potential and in vivo performance.
Bacterial cellulose (BC) is a highly pure biomaterial that can be produced from agro-industrial residues, making it a sustainable candidate for tissue engineering applications such as biocompatible hydrogel. However, pure BC is rigid and brittle, which limits its clinical handling. This study aimed to synthesise BC membranes from the non-photosynthetic bacterium Komagataeibacter nataicola (TISTR 975) using mature coconut water as the primary fermentation medium, and to improve its mechanical properties by forming an in situ composite hydrogel with polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA). Sucrose concentration and cultivation period were systematically varied and analysed using response surface methodology (RSM), which identified the optimal condition as a 7-day cultivation at 50 g/L sucrose, yielding a highly uniform membrane with the best structural integrity. In situ fabrication of the BC/PHA composite, achieved by dispersing PHA powder in the culture medium during synthesis, markedly enhanced the material’s flexibility and water-holding capacity. The elongation at break increased from 22.9% for pure BC to 28.2% for the composite, with only a slight reduction in ultimate tensile strength. A cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment (LCA) showed that the BC/PHA membrane had a global warming potential approximately 3.2 times lower than that of bovine collagen membranes, while the incorporation of PHA introduced a negligible additional environmental burden. These findings indicate that the locally producible and biodegradable BC/PHA composite hydrogel offers a favourable balance between mechanical performance, water-holding capacity, and environmental sustainability, positioning it as a promising candidate for the future development of guided tissue regeneration (GTR) gel membranes in dentistry.
