Despite growing research linking ultra-processed food (UPF) consumption to risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and hypertension, no study has systematically evaluated the methodological rigor underlying these associations. We systematically searched major databases to identify eligible studies. Data were extracted for dietary assessment methods, UPF classification, covariate selection, confounding control, statistical modeling and effect estimates. Random-effects meta-analysis was conducted to pool effect estimates. Meta-regression and sensitivity analyses were performed to explore sources of heterogeneity. Substantial heterogeneity was observed in the application of the NOVA classification for categorizing UPFs across the 46 eligible studies. Only two studies employed a directed acyclic graph to inform confounder selection; 42 used models with suboptimal adjustment, and 38 were overfitted due to adjustment for potential mediators. Pooled analyses indicated that higher consumption of UPFs was associated with a 9% higher risk of CVD and a 16% higher risk of hypertension, with stronger associations observed for coronary heart and cerebrovascular diseases. While higher UPF intake is consistently associated with increased risks of CVD and hypertension, methodological limitations may attenuate the observed associations. Strengthening methodological rigor through harmonized UPF classification and causal frameworks is essential to better elucidate the effect of UPF consumption on cardiometabolic health.
T. C. Mekonnen, Z. Abebe, A. Dessie et al.· Critical reviews in food sci...· 0 citations
Background: Epidemiological evidence suggests that green leafy vegetables (GLV) may reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). However, the relationship remains incompletely understood due to inconsistencies between findings from observational studies and randomized controlled trials (RCTs). Therefore, a comprehensive synthesis of evidence across study designs is warranted. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the association between GLV consumption and CVD risk, as well as related cardiovascular risk factors, including blood pressure (BP) and endothelial function, based on evidence from observational studies and RCTs. Methods: Systematic searches of PubMed, EMBASE, APA PsycInfo, and Ovid databases were conducted through 30 October 2024. Risk of bias was assessed using the ROBINS-E tool for observational studies and the RoB 2 tool for RCTs. Pooled relative risks (RRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated for observational studies, whereas mean differences (MDs) were used for RCT outcomes. Random-effects meta-analyses were performed, and heterogeneity was evaluated using Cochran’s Q and I2 statistics. Results: Higher GLV consumption was significantly associated with a reduced risk of CVD in observational studies (RR: 0.89; 95% CI: 0.82–0.97; p < 0.01; I2 = 80%; Q = 55.88) and lower CVD mortality (RR: 0.79; 95% CI: 0.62–0.97; p < 0.01; I2 = 80%; Q = 4.93). However, pooled analysis of seven RCTs showed no significant improvement in vascular function following GLV intake (MD: −0.37; 95% CI: −1.90 to 1.16; p = 0.64; I2 = 88%; Q = 18.59). No significant associations were observed between GLV consumption and hypertension risk in observational studies, nor were significant effects found on systolic or diastolic BP in RCTs. Conclusions: Higher GLV consumption may be associated with a lower risk of CVD in observational studies. However, evidence from RCTs remains limited and inconclusive. Further well-designed clinical trials are needed to confirm these associations, establish dose–response relationships, and elucidate the mechanisms underlying the cardioprotective effects of GLVs to support evidence-based dietary recommendations.
