Decoding immunotherapy resistance in glioblastoma: mechanistic limitations, clinical trial failures, and strategic roadmaps for next-generation checkpoint modulation
Glioblastoma (GBM) remains one of the most treatment-refractory malignancies, characterized by profound intratumoral heterogeneity, an immunologically “cold” microenvironment, and rapid adaptive resistance to immune checkpoint inhibition. Despite mechanistic advances targeting PD-1, PD-L1, and CTLA-4 pathways, clinic...